1.     

2.     
Предмет та статус теорії перекладу. Роль-перекладу у розвитку світової культури та зміцненні міжнародних зв'язків.

Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST). This target text (TT, that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL.

The structure of the translation should follow that of the original text: there should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text.

The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. Of major importance is the semantic identification of the translation with ST. It is presumed that the translation has the same meaning as the original text. The translator usually tries to produce in TL the closest possible equivalent to ST.

The theory of translation provides the translator with the appropriate tools of analysis and synthesis, makes him aware of what he is to look for in the original text, what type of information he must convey in TT and how he should act to achieve his goal.

Strengthening of internat.relations (Ukraine)

lexical meanings is the general concept corresponding to a word or a combi-nation of words

connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meaning

association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers.

grammatical meaning

The gaining of independence by Ukraine in 1991 awoke an unknown before increase in the employment of both oral and written translation, which became needed for the establishment of international relations with the rest of the world. These two types of translation provided a newly independent country in its first years with the mass of the official international texts of diplomatic and legal nature (treaties, agreements). Due to the active employment of written translation Ukraine could successfully establish and maintain its international relations with outside world.

The only functioning organ except some private publishing houses, which continued to publish the works of foreign literatures in Ukrainian translation remained the Vsesvit journal. The Ukrainian reader has received mostly high quality artistic of works by many foreign classics and mostly prominent contemporary poets, whose works have never been published in Ukrainian before.

Among the translators, who have greatly contributed to the recognition of foreign literature were: M.Pinchevskiy, M.Mitrofanov, M.Lytvinets and others. 
2.
Загально-лінгвістичні аспекти перекладу. Мова і реальний світ. Система мови. Співвідношення систем різних мов

The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves 3 basic sets of elements:

1. language signs (sequence of sounds or symbols which is associated with a single concept in the minds of speakers of that or another language. .signs are a kind of construction elements of which a language is built);

mental concepts (array of mental images and associations related to a particular part of the extralinguistic world, on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on the other);
2. denotatum – parts of the extra linguistic world which not necessarily material or physically really existing..
The system of language is some order organizing hundreds of thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in speech. In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the formal plane, comprising spoken or written language sign and the semantic, comprising mental concepts the language signs stand for (words from a dictionary- formal plane, its definitions- semantic plane).

A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels:

1.morphological (including morphs and morphemes objects),

2. lexical (including words and objects),

3. syntactic (including such elements as Subject, Predicate).

At each language level its objects may be grouped according to their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms. (spring, summer, winter, autumn – lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons). elements of language paradigms are united and organized according to their potential roles in speech formation. These roles are called valences (здатність слів сполучатися з іншими словами). The paradigms brought together form the system of the language.

Language paradigms are virtual elements of the lang. which are activated in syntactically interdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagma. A syntagma is a pair of words connected by the master-servant relationship.

-          paradigms which are activated into independent groups of sentence elements.

In different languages set elements and syntagmas are often different.

The list of definite differences between Russian and English language systems.

Russian	English
1. Russian is a flective synthetic language.	1. English is analytical language, complex grammar relations are constructed by a group of words.
2.	2. Structures with definite subject, predicate relations.
	3. English is verb-sentence language.
4. Negative structures in Russian negation.	4. Affirmative constructions.
5. Russian is longer, is full of extensions.	5. Short words, short sentences.
6. Russian prefers abstract lexical generalizations.	6. English in general is more definite.
7.	7. English is indirect.
8. Word order is loosed.	8. Word order is fixed.
9. The focus is at the end of the sentence,	9. The focus I at the beginning (subject – predicate – object).
	10. The styles are less opposed.

3.Переклад як засіб комунікації. Види перекладацької діяльності. Письмовий та усний переклад. Послідовний та синхронний переклад. Машинний переклад: стан, перспективи.

Communicational theory of translation describes the process of translation as an act of special bilingual communication in which the translator act as a special communication intermediary, making it possible to understand a message sent in a different language. Translation

There are two main kinds of translation:

1. written (translation):

§         literary translation;

§         official documents.

2. oral (interpretation):

§         consecutive (chuchotage, at-sight interpretation);

§         simultaneous.

We can distinguish between written and oral translation. As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.

There are two main kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous.

In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. He has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages.

In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message.

Machine translation (word-to-word translation) invented in 1949 by the American mathematic Weaver.

There are different approaches or methods of translation automation:

1. direct or icon method (encoding-decoding) is based on establishing a direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries. The source and target texts are similar in form and conceptual content. It’s word-for-word translation. To improve the quality we use:

a)syntactic filters – logical frames.

b)Statistical ranking of translation equivalents – select the most probable ones for translation equivalents – select the most probable ones for the subject, discussed in text.

2. transfer-based method – grammars of the source and target languages are matched in the process of translation by a set of rules called transfer.

Steps of translation:

1)morphological analysis;

2)syntactic analysis;

3)transfer;

4)syntactic synthesis;

5)morphological synthesis.

3. pilot language-based machine translation.

Similar to #2, but also:

§         involves all available linguistic information;

§         applicable to any language (not just one concrete language pair).

4. statistical methods – presume that with certain probability each word of the target text be a translation of each word of the source language text.

5. computer-aided translation – is a tool to assist human translation (a translator uses a machine translation system to find equivalents for words, words combinations etc.)
4. Значення слова та переклад. Багатозначність та широта значення слова.  Лінгвістичний та екстралінгвістичний характер перекладу. Лексичне значення, конотація та асоціація.

Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the translation theory. Here we deal with the dynamic aspects of translation trying to understand how the translator performs the transfer operation from source text to target text. A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. The existing models of the translating process are based on the same assumptions which we consider in discussing the problem of equivalence namely the situational model is based on the identity on the situations described in the original text and in the translation and the semantic-transformational model. In the situational model this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is described reality, the facts of the life that are presented by the verbal description. A different approach was used by Nida who suggested that the translating may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. A similar approach can be used to describe the translation of semantic units. The semantic model postulates the existence of the “deep” semantic categories common to source language and target language. It is presumed that the translator first reduced the semantic units of the original to these basic semantic categories and then expresses the appropriate notions by the semantic units of target language.  Another approach to the description of the process of the translating consists in the identification of different types of operations performed by the translator. Here the process is viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original as a result of which the translator creates the text in the target language.

The first group of operations is characterized by imitation of the form of a word or of a collocation.

The second group of operations includes all types of lexical transformations involving certain semantic changes. As a result the meaning of a word or word combination in the ST may be made more specific more general or somewhat modified as a way to discovering as appropriate equivalent in TL.

The third group of translating procedures comprises all types of transformations involving units of SL grammar. Sometimes the translator can prefer portioning to the other possible methods of translation, as producing a variant more suitable stylistically or emotionally. Consider the following example: The annual surveys of the Labour Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only the  employers. – Ежегодные сборы лейбористского правительства не обсуждались среди рабочих на этом этапе. Они обсуждались только с предпринимателями. Words in language are related to certain  referents which they designate and to other words of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. These relationships are called semantic and syntactic, represectively.

Lexical meanings is the general concept corresponding to a word or a combination of words.

Connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meaning.

Association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers.
5. Визначення перекладу як предмета лінгвістичного дослідження. Етапи перекладу. Головні теоретичні підходи до перекладу.

Translation means both a process and a result. In order to explain translation we need to compare the source text (original) and target one.

While translating we should consider extralinguistic situation and background information.

As an object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the following interrelated components:

1. elements and structures of the source text;

2. elements and structures of the target text;

3. transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of the source text into those of the target text; system of the languages involved in translation;

4. conceptual content and organization of the source text;

5. conceptual content and organization of the target text;

6. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target texts.

Translation is a functional interaction of languages.

3 stages of translation:

1. analysis of the source text, situation and background information;

2. synthesis of the translation model;

3. verification of the model against the source and target context (semantic, grammatical, stylistic) situation, and background information resulting in the generation of the final target text.

Verification is performed either simultaneously or with a delay (at first to understand the following sentence).

3 main translation approaches:

Transformational – denotative – communicational.

The transformational approach suggests that in any language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological and word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies in another language during translation (machine translation).

The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems with specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the process of translation links between the forms of different languages are established via conceptual aspects equivalence.

The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of translation – the matching of thesaurus. Translation may achieve its ultimate target only of the translator knows the user’s language and the subject matter of the translation well enough. Scientists argues about the priorities in a translators education.
6. Проблема перекладності. Поняття адекватності перекладу. Види перекладу: буквальний, вільний, адекватний.

Literal translating is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motelготель/мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.

Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

 Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form.

Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, never say die is not ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом.

Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language.

The interlinear way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units.

Literal translating – artistic translation (артистичний переклад віршів).

Adequate translating – is the maximum level of equivalents (підбір синонімів).

10. Особливості перекладу матеріалів офіційно-ділового стилю. Жанрові особливості тексту та вибір слова з синонімічного ряду.

Unlikely literary texts, the texts of official documents are highly standardized.

Structure of official documents:

1.       macro level:

·         preamble;

·         main text body;

·         concluding part.

2.       micro level: the arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences.
frame – a set of language structure with unchangeable elements

Document

                           slots – changeable elements within the text frame
Blank spaces that should be filled with slot fillers (date, company, name, address).

Official styles:

·         business documents;

·         legal documents;

·         diplomacy documents;

·         military documents.

Features of the official style:

·         usage of abbreviations;

·         use words in their logical dictionary meaning;

·         absence of emotiveness.

The task of a translator of official documents is to find target language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with the document content.

11. Збіжності та розходження граматичних моделей мови-джерела і мови-мети. Трансформації при перекладі. Регулярні та оказіональні трансформації.

There are 3 types of translation: syntactic, semantic, pragmatic.

Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level during translation.

The majority of syntactic transformations in English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, that means that the translator transforms the source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are unknown and the translator’s decisions relevant to the case are often intuitive.

In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of translator’s choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.

In Eng-Ukr translation there are also cases of regular syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain transformation rules more or less strictly.

Regular syntactic transformations are the matching rules for the grammars of the two languages involved in translation. The goal of a translation manual is to show how and why the matching rules of the grammatical system of the two languages involved in translation are violated.

For example: Gerund – is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in Ukrainian. As a rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or Verbal Nouns.

Regular transformations do not presenta serious problem for translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice, unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require individual and sometimes unique solutions.

The relationship between the source and target word forms is occasional rather than regular. Example:

(1)The sea is warm tonight – Сьогодні ввечері море тепле

(2)Staff only – Службове приміщення

First instance- the equivalencies are regular and the concept may be divided into individual components; sea-море, tonight-сьогодні ввечері, is warm-тепле. The second instance – the equivalencies between the original sentence and its translation is occasional and the concept cannot be divided into individual components.

12. Граматичні трансформації при перекладі: зміна порядку слів, перестановка, зміна частин мови та членів речення. Трансформація добавлення та заміщення. Членування та об'єднання речень при перекладі.
Антонімічний переклад.

The basic set of translation devices usually comprises partitioning and integration of sentences, transposition of sentence parts, replacement, addition and omission of words and word combinations as well as a special type of transformations called antonymous translation.

Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one. There are inner partitioning and outer partitioning. In.part. is used when translating English verbal complexes into Ukrainian: Come along and see me play one evening – Приходь коли-небудь увечері – побачишб як я граю. Outer part. is more a matter of personal translator’s choice based on the proper account of stylistic and genre peculiarities and communication intent of both the source text and its translation: There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old school hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was of an adventurous character until he was changed by the continual and sometimes shameful failures of his adult life. – Була і справжня, а не солона гра, у яку ми грали в актовому залі старої школи. Цю гру вигадав мій старший брат Герберт – людина винахідлива і схильна до всіляких пригод, доки постійні і часом ганебні негаразди дорослого життя не змінили його вдачу.

Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or more source sentences into one target sentence.

Олена Філіп’єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не танцює – починає сумувати. – Olena Filip’eva loves all her roles and even misses them should too much time pass without performing them.

Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject, Object) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intent: “The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes, “ the girl added with a smile – “Приблизно за 15 хвилин на цей рейс буде посадка біля виходу номер 17”, - посміхаючись, додала дівчина.

Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms.” No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted.” – Не встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.

Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language. “ Green Party federal election money – гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні”.

Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistic. (omission is the opposite of addition) :fuel tax protests – протести пов’язані з підвищенням податку на паливо – protests related to the increase of the tax fuel.

Antonymous translation – affirmative in structure language unit is converged via a negative (in sense or structure but identical in language unit or vice versa).

Take it easy – не хвилюйся;

Немає лиха без добра – Every dark cloud has a silver lining.

The antonymous translation is employed in the cases.

1. When in the TL there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source language.

2. When the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own in which create an affirmation.

3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness.

I don’t think it will hurt u – Думаю, вам вони не зашкодять.

4. To avoid using the same structures (stylistic aim).
13. Лексичні трансформації при перекладі. Засоби диференціації, генералізації, конкретизації, смислового розвитку значення.

Лексико-семантические замены - это способ перевода лексических единиц оригинала путем использования в переводе единиц ПЯ, значение которых не совпадает со значениями исходных единиц, но может быть выведено из них с помощью определенного типа логических преобразований. Основными видами подобных замен являются конкретизация, генерализация и модуляция (смысловое развитие) значения исходной единицы.

1)Конкретизацией называется замена слова или словосочетания ИЯ с более широким предметно-логическим значением словом и словосочетанием ПЯ с более узким значением. В результате применения этой трансформации создаваемое соответствие и исходная лексическая единица оказываются в логических отношениях включения: единица ИЯ выражает родовое понятие, а единица ПЯ - входящее в нее видовое понятие:

Concretization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation.

E.g. There were pictures on all the walls and there was a vase with flowers on the table. – На всех стенах комнаты висели
картины, а на столе стояла
ваза.

Широко распространена конкретизация английских глаголов «говорения» to say и to tell, которые могут переводиться на русский язык не только как «говорить» или «сказать», но и более конкретными «промолвить, повторить, заметить, утверждать, сообщать, просить, возразить, велеть» и т.п.:

"So what?" I said. - Ну и что? - спросил я.

Не told me I should always obey my father. - Он посоветовал мне всегда слушаться моего отца.

The boss told me to come at once. - Хозяин велел мне прийти сейчас же.

2)Генерализацией называется замена единицы ИЯ, имеющей более узкое значение, единицей ПЯ с более широким значением, т.е. преобразование, обратное конкретизации. Создаваемое соответствие выражает родовое понятие, включающее исходное видовое:

Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when preserving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation.

E.g. She ordered a daiquiri (a sweet alcohol drink made of rum and fruit) – Она заказала коктейль.

Не showed us his old beat-up' Navajo blanket. - Он нам показал свое потрепанное индейское одеяло.

3)Модуляцией или смысловым развитием называется замена слова или словосочетания ИЯ единицей ПЯ, значение которой логически выводится из значения исходной единицы. Наиболее часто значения соотнесенных слов в оригинале и переводе оказываются при этом связанными причинно-следственными отношениями: I don't blame them. - Я их понимаю. (Причина заменена следствием: я их не виню потому, что я их понимаю). He's dead now. - Он умер. (Он умер, стало быть, он сейчас мертв.) Не always made you say everything twice. - Он всегда переспрашивал. (Вы были вынуждены повторять сказанное, потому что он вас переспрашивал.) При использовании метода модуляции причинно-следственные отношения часто имеют более широкий характер, но логическая связь между двумя наименованиями всегда сохраняется:

В следующем примере эта связь более явная, но и здесь это скорее не «потому что», а «поскольку, постольку»:

Не would cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again and draw skeletons all over his slate, before his eyes were dry.

Он снова приободрялся, начинал смеяться и рисовал на своей грифельной доске разные фигурки, хотя глаза его еще были полны слез.

14. Засоби перекладу фразеологічних одиниць та усталених словосполучень не фразеологічних за характером. Збереження образності під час перекладу.


Idiomatic/phraseological expression – are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts. They produce a considerable expressive effect for, besides conveying information, they appeal to the reader's emotions, his aesthetic perception, his literary and cultural associations. An idiom's semantics are a complex entity and there are five aspects of its meaning that will influence the translator's choice of an equivalent in the target language. They are the idiom's figurative meaning, its literal sense, its emotive character, stylistic register and national colouring. The figurative meaning is the basic element of the idiom's semantics. Thus "red tape" means bureaucracy, "to kick the bucket" means to die, and "to wash dirty linen in public" means to disclose one's family troubles to outsiders. Idioms can be positive, negative or neutral. It is clear that "to kill two birds with one stone" is good, "to find a mare's nest" is a ludicrous mistake while "Rome was not built in a day" is a neutral statement of fact. They can also differ in their stylistic usage: they may be bookish (to show one's true colours) or colloquial (to be a pain in the neck). Besides, an idiom can be nationally coloured, that is include some words which mark it as the product of a certain nation. For instance, "to set the Thames on fire" and "to carry coals to Newcastle" are unmistakably British. There are four typical methods to handle a SL idiom in the translating process.

First, the translator can make use of a TL idiom which is identical to the SL idiom in all five aspects of its semantics, e.g. "to pull chestnuts out of the fire for smb." — таскать каштаны из огня для кого-либо.

Second, the SL idiom can be translated by a TL idiom which has the same figurative meaning, preserves the same emotive and stylistic characteristics but is based on a different image, that is, has a different literal meaning, e.g. "make hay while the sun shines" — куй железо, пока горячо.

Third, the SL idiom can be translated by reproducing its form word-for-word in TL, e.g. "People who live in glass houses should not throw stones." - Люди, живущие в стеклянных домах, не должны бросать камни.

Fourth, instead of translating the SL idiom, the translator may try to explicate its figurative meaning, so as to preserve at least the main element of its semantics.

The meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as stable/set expressions can be rendered through explication only, i.e., in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning contained in the source-language idiom, it can be expressed in the target language in some ways:

1) by a single word: out of a clear blue.of the sky раптом, зненацька; to pall and peel (to peel and pall) грабувати/оббирати; poor fish йолоп, бевзь, нікчема; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість; to sell smoke піддурювати, підманювати; to seta-limit to smth. обмежувати, стримувати; to set at large звільнювати (випустити на волю); to go aloft померти;

2) undoubtedly the most frequent is rendering the sense of idiomatic/phraseological expressions with the help of free combinations of words as in: to run amock нападати зненацька на першу-ліпшу людину; school miss школярка, соромлива, недосвідчена дівчина; to sell someone short недооцінювати когось; to sham Abraham удавати з себе хворого (прикидатися хворим); to shoot Niagara вдаватися до ризикованих дій, short odds майже рівні шанси; to sit above the salt сидіти на почесному місці; the sixty-four dollar question найважливіше, вирішальне питання; a stitch in time своєчасний захід/вчинок, своєчасна дія; to go to rack (wrack) ruin загинути; зовсім розоритися; to go west/West пропасти, зникнути, зійти зі сцени (переносно);

3) when the lexical meaning of an original idiomatic expression is condensed or when it is based on a nationally specific notion/ structural form alien to the target languages, the idiomatic expression may be conveyed by a sentence or a longer explanation: a wet blanket людина або обставина, що розхолоджує; well day (well-day) день, коли у хворого не погіршувався стан здоров'я (час між приступами гарячки, малярії тощо); wise behind млявий, що погано міркує; white elephant подарунок, якого важко позбутися (те, що приносить більше турбот, ніж користі); yes man (yes-man) людина, що з усіма згоджується, тільки підтакує (підтакувач); to cut off with a shilling залишити без спадщини; fight like Kilkenny cats битися до взаємного знищення; to accept (the Stewardship) of the Chiltern Hundreds (Parliament) скласти з себе обов'язки члена британського парламенту.