Основная задача лингвистического анализа – выявление общей художественной идеи текста, то есть того обобщающего эмоционального смысла, который лежит в основе произведения и доминантой которого является авторская точка зрения по отношению к описываемой действительности. В процессе анализа рассматриваются разные уровни текста: лексический (изучение тематических полей слов и особенностей отдельного слова), синтаксический (принцип сочетания слов, предложений, особенности структуры сложного синтаксического целого), композиционно синтаксический (определение типа повествования, взаимодействия речевых структур, пространственно-временная и субъективная организация текста абзаца). Кроме того, особое внимание уделяется выявлению имплицитных «элементов» текста. Порядок рассмотрения названных уровней свободен и задаётся спецификой конкретного произведения. Важно иметь в виду, что объектом анализа является художественный текст, а не художественное произведение «Текст – один из компонентов художественного произведения, конечно, крайне существенный компонент, без которого существование художественного произведения невозможно» [Лотман, 1972: 24].
Лингвистический анализ художественного текста очень важен, перед читателем ставится узкая задача внимательного прочтения извлечения максимальной художественной информации из самого текста. Характеристика литературной, общественной жизни эпохи, изучение биографии автора и обстоятельность создания данного произведения, безусловно, расширяет представление читателя о конкретном тексте, однако, это задача литературоведческого анализа [Гореликова, Магомедова, 1983: 7]. Существует такое понятие как интерпретация текста. В большей или меньшей степени, интерпретирование текста обязательно имеет место и при литературоведческом, и при лингвостилистическом анализе произведения, ибо художественное творчество не есть просто ещё один способ самовыражения, оно составляет важную, естественную и необходимую сторону коммуникативной деятельности человека.
Художественный текст сложен и многослоен. Задача его интерпретации – извлечь максимум заложенных в него мыслей и чувств художника. Замысел художника воплощён в произведении и только из него может быть реконструирован.
Интерпретация текста, таким образом, - это освоение идейно-эстетической, смысловой и эмоциональной информации художественного произведения, осуществляемое путём воссоздания авторского видения и познания действительности [Кухаренко, 1979: 8].
Понятие текст традиционно связывается и с другим основным понятием стилистики – стилем, независимо от трактовки последнего тем или иным направлением лингвистики. При понимании текста как общесемиотической категории текст и стиль соотносятся прежде всего как характеристики речевой деятельности. Если стиль – это значимое свойство человеческой деятельности в целом, и речевой деятельности в частности, то текст – самая крупная коммуникативная единица письменного типа речи – выступает одновременно как «оттиск» процесса речевой деятельности, как её результат, или продукт, и как «инструмент», используемый в процессе речевой деятельности – основное средство достижения некой прагматической цели.
Лингвостилистический анализ может проводиться на разных уровнях языка: фонологическом, морфологическом, лексическом, синтаксическом. Основной единицей фонологического уровня является фонема, главная функция которой – различение значимых единиц языка. В отличие от единиц других уровней языка, фонемы обладают только планом выражения, то есть не являются двусторонним знаком, и поэтому все фонемы имеют одинаковую функцию и играют одинаковую роль в организации звуковой стороны высказывания. В связи с этим, ни одна фонема не может быть стилистически маркированной по отношению к другой, и, как следствие этого, на фонологическом уровне отсутствуют выразительные средства.

Interpretation of a Text_

1.     Speak of the author in brief.

o     the facts of his/her biography relevant for his/her creative activities

o     the epoch (social and historical background)

o     the literary trend he/she belongs to

o     the main literary pieces (works)

2.     Give a summary of the extract (story) under consideration (the gist, the content of the story in a nutshell).

3.     State the problem raised (tackled) by the author.

4.     Formulate the main idea conveyed by the author (the main line of the thought, the author's message).

5.     Give a general definition of the text under study.

o a 3rd person narrative

o a 1st person narrative

o narration interlaced with descriptive passages and dialogues of the personages

o narration broken by digressions (philosophical, psychological, lyrical, etc.)

o an account of events interwoven with a humorous (ironical, satirical) portrayal of society, or the personage, etc.

6.     Define the prevailing mood (tone, slant) of the extract. It may be lyrical, dramatic, tragic, optimistic / pessimistic, melodramatic, sentimental, unemotional / emotional, pathetic, dry and matter-of-fact, gloomy, bitter, sarcastic, cheerful, etc.

7.     The composition of the story. Divide the text logically into complete parts and entitle them.If possible choose the key-sentence (the topic sentence) in each part that reveals its essence. The compositional pattern of a complete story (chapter, episode) may be as follows:

a.    the exposition (introduction)

b.    the development of the plot (an account of events)

c.    the climax (the culminating point)

d.    the denouement (the outcome of the story)

8.     Give a detailed analysis of each logically complete part.

Follow the formula-matter form. It implies that firstly you should dwell upon the content of the part and secondly comment upon the language means (Expressional Means and Stylistic Devices) employed by the author to achieve desired effect, to render his thoughts and feelings.

Main Notions_

When discussing stories or extracts there are certain aspects which are supposed to regard. It's useful to know them and to be able to use them. They can make it easier for you to talk about novels, stories and other literary work.

If you deal with an extract, begin your discussion with same a few words about its origin, naming the writer and the title of the story or the novel it's taken from.

Plot refers to the sequence of events or actions in a story.

Conflict is at the heart of the plot. It's the up position of the characters or groups of characters to each other or something.

Plot plus conflict comprise Theme. The theme of the story is its central idea or message.

Tone of a story shouldn't be forgotten while speaking on characters or objects. Tone shows the author's attitude and helps us to understand if the writer takes it seriously, ironically, comically, bitterly, humorously or otherwise.

Mood is the dominant impression the story makes on you. It can be gloom, sad, optimistic, pathetic, cheerful, melancholic and so on. Mood like tone may be revealed through the choice of words, figures of speech, dialogues, short or long sentences and even phonetic devices.

How to Analyze a Text_

Знакомство с лучшими образцами английской поэзии и прозы, умение вдумчиво читать и понимать художественную литературу в единстве содержания и формы способствуют всестороннему целостному развитию личности, становлению духовного мира человека, созданию условий для формирования у него внутренней потребности в непрерывном совершенствовании, в реализации своих творческих возможностей.

В связи с этим нужно уделять большое внимание выработке глубокого понимания художественного произведения и привитию навыков его самостоятельного анализа.

На первом этапе оно представляет собой организацию беседы по вопросам, направленным на элементарное толкование контекста:

1.     Who is the story about?

2.     What do we know about the main character?

3.     Do you like him (her) or not? Why?

4.     Which character do you like more? Why?

5.     What pictures can you imagine while reading the story? What helps you to see them?

6.     Do you like the story? Why? Etc.

Позже аналитическая беседа строится на двух уровнях:

·  уровне значения (умения выделять в тексте основную мысль, деталь, иллюстрирующую основную мысль, факты, относящиеся к определенном теме, обобщать изложенные факты, устанавливать связи между событиями)

·  и уровне смысла (умения вывести суждение на основе фактов, сделать вывод, оценить изложенные факты, понять подтекст, идею текста, найти художественные средства выразительности и определить их роль, место в повествовании).

Предварительная беседа является стержнем для основного вида деятельности на этом этапе - пересказа с элементами анализа.

Вот простенькая схема пересказа, которая используется как основа, и постепенно варьируется и усложняется.

A Plan for Retelling:

1. Information about the author and the book from which the passage is taken. Examples:

o I would like to tell you a story ... written by ... . He/she was a well-known for ... . The book is about ... who ... .

o The story I would like to speak about is written by ... . We know that the author ... . The book is devoted to ... .

o We've read a very unusual (thrilling, exaggerated, exciting, etc.) story by ... . It touches upon (deals with) the problem of ... .

2. General characteristics of the text (its slant, type of narration, etc.).

3. Introduction of the main character (appearance, characteristic features, the way he/she is presented in the text) and opening events.

4. Description of events as they appear in the extract. Pay attention to:

o     the variety of expressive means, e.g.:

§      a) the narration begins with ...;

§      b) draw(s) the reader's attention to ...;

§      c) ... making the reader believe...;

§      d) serve(s) to stress ...;

§      e) prepare(s) the ground for ...;

§      f) the emotional state of the character is revealed...;

§      g) the author's presentation of ...; etc.;

o     the use of stylistic devices, e. g.:

§      a) epithets;

§      b) similes;

§      c) metaphors;

§      d) personifications;

§      e) repetitions;

§      their role in the narration (to create the atmosphere of ...;

§      to convey the feelings and emotion of ...;

§      to give an explanation ...;

§      to express the idea ...;

§      to underline ...; etc.).

5. The main idea of the story.

6. Your attitude towards the things described.

Из журнала "Иностранные языки в школе"

Phrases for Translating Ideas into Words_

·  The story / article deals with / is concerned with / describes / examines / reveals / exposes / dwells on / explains / addresses / discusses / presents / covers / outlines / states / offers / considers / looks into / treats

·  The story is set in ...

·  The scene is laid in ...

·  The story is written in a form of... (the author's recollections, the dialogue, narration, autobiography)

·  The action takes place in ...

·  As the story unfolds, ...

·  The plot of the story centres round ...

·  The basic plot of the story develops slowly towards a violently dramatic incident and an ironical conclusion.

·  The plot of the story is complicated (intricate, tangled up, trite, commonplace, simple).

·  The plot of the story baffles the reader.

·  The gist/core of the problem raised in the story is ...

·  The subject taken up in the story/article is ...

·  The issues/problems of... are the concern of this article.

·  This problem is the subject of the article.

·  The problems addressed in the article are acute / urgent / vital / burning.

·  The main idea/message of the story is ...

·  ... is the main thread of the story.

·  The idea is conveyed through the presentation of ... (the dialogue of...)

·  The moral of the story is ...

·  The central conflict of the story is ...

·  With the beginning of Chapter ..., the novel gains momentum and the mood changes.

·  The story has a deep emotional/intellectual appeal.

·  The content is an objective/subjective reflection of reality.

·  The story deals with the burning problems of life: politics, economics, education, marriage..

·  The story is a broad reflector of the aims, confusions, concerns, ideas, and attitudes of ...

·  This story is intended to provoke thought.

·  This story gives food for thought.

·  This story is realistic in style, cordial in comedy, sympathetic in mood.

·  The story is full of problems, but they emerge as part of life which is so energetically, vividly, frankly offered for our inspection.

·  The story provokes contradictory assessments.

·  The story is marked with pessimism/optimism.

·  The story is characterized by gripping narrative and deep emotional impact.

·  The story is permeated with irony/lofty ideas/strong feelings.

·  The story is a remarkable insight into human character.

·  The story is an in-depth study of human nature.

·  The story reveals human virtues and vices.

·  This story reflects the author's preoccupation with the moral self.

·  The story shows the author's concern with the moral principles.

·  The story has a(n)interesting / entertaining / exciting / gripping / amusing / enjoyable / funny / witty / banal / skillfully developed / slow-moving / fast-moving plot.

·  The charm of the story lies in a realistic portrayal of the characters and a truthful description of...

·  This story is a delight to read, even though it is made of material which is so disgusting and depressing.

·  Whatever is sick, sad and ugly in modern urban life is depicted in the story; its rare moments of beauty too.

·  The author reveals the nature of his characters through (actions, details, dialogues, etc.)...

·  The author gives an account of...

·  The author conveys his emotions to the reader using ...

·  The author brings to the reader's notice ...

·  The author gives a comprehensive and vivid picture of...

·  The author remains concentrated on these problems throughout the story.

·  In this story the author voices dissatisfaction with ...

·  The author shows (presents) complex / complicated / simple / imaginary / realistic / (un)convincing / superficial / flat / round / well(badly) portrayed characters.

·  The author seems to be the spokesman of the spirit of time.

·  The author's aim is to concentrate the reader's attention on the inner world of his characters.

·  The author displays a mastery in rendering the subtleties and contradictions of life.

·  The author is focused on human feelings and relationships, actions and motives.

·  The author explores the complexity of human character/ smb's inner motives.

·  There is one trait always present in this author's books, which singles him out of commonplace writers.

·  The author unfolds a theme in which stupidity, hypocrisy and ambition play their sorry parts.

·  The author's attention is focused on ...

·  The author portrays /depicts a man in close cooperation with society.

·  In his story the author turns to the conflicts of contemporary life.

·  The reader can easily understand the author's own attitude towards his characters.

·  The reader grasps the idea that ...

·  ... serves to convey to the reader the mood of the narrator / author.

·  It is ... that falls under the author's observation.

·  The author's strong point lies in a vivid description of the beliefs, customs, manners, costumes, language of the epoch plus the energy and movement which his story displays.

·  The author's sympathy lies with ...

·  The author's real central figure seems to be ...

·  The author's irony exposes the vices of this society: hypocrisy, money-worship, and moral degradation. That is why one can hardly find any positive character in the novel.

·  The author is known for a deep psychological analysis of his heroes and a very thoughtful attitude to the burning political and social problems of the day.

·  The author starts a new tradition of bringing the language of literature (in the author's speech, no less than in that of the personages) close to the language of real life. He does away with the elaborate syntax of the 19th century prose and cultivates somewhat abrupt sentences, true to the rhythm and the intonation of the spoken language and full of low colloquialisms and even slang.

·  The author's method of developing a story often involves a turn which takes the audience half by surprise, as it may have taken the dramatist himself.

·  There is not a character in the story that is not worth studying, nor a scene that is not life-like, not a reflection that has not a deep meaning.

·  The character of the heroine is drawn with admirable skill. She is full-blooded and many-sided: adventurous, gifted, with a keen sense of humour and deep understanding of people.

·  He is the only character worthy of the author's positive estimate.

·  His life is characteristic of/typical of/peculiar to...

·  She is an embodiment of beauty.

·  Money becomes the prime object of their worship and respect.

·  This character enjoys all the sympathy of the reader.

·  Though possessing some social problems, this story seems to have an air of being away from reality.

·  The story reveals the author's great knowledge of man's inner world. He penetrates into the subtlest windings of the human heart.

·  The author's style is remarkable for its powerful sweep, brilliant illustrations and deep psychological analysis. Everything he touches seems to reflect the feelings of the heroes, and his power in depicting their passions - hate, fear, revenge, remorse, love - is enormous.

·  Giving the author his due for brilliance of style and a pointed ridicule of many social vices, such as snobbishness, money-worship, pretence, self-interest, etc., we realize, however, his cynical attitude to mankind. It is quite obvious that when describing the corruption of modern society, he is not indignant but rather amused. His habitual attitude is that of expecting little or nothing of his fellow men. His ironical cynicism combined with a keen wit and power of observation affords him effective means of portraying reality without shrinking before its seamy side.

·  The author shares in his characters' attitude towards ...

·  ... is given by the author with great force and skill.

·  Galsworthy's realism lies in his capacity for making his hero part and parcel of his surroundings and convincing the reader of his typicality: he is a fine artist in reproducing the individual workings of his characters' mind.

·  The foundation of Galsworthy's talent lies in a remarkable power of ironic insight combined with an extremely keen and faithful eye for all the phenomena on the surface of the life he observes.

·  The appeal of Jerome lies in his gentleness and irony, in his power of digression, his gift of capping his comic moments with a final extravagant act that outbids life altogether.

·  The atmosphere of gayety characteristic of the beginning is changed by sad humour towards the end.

·  The charm of this story lies in its interesting plot and exciting situation. At the same time it conveys deep thought, keen observation and sharpness of characterization. These very qualities assure the author of an outstanding place in the annals of literature and in the hearts of all who love good stories.

·  Many of the events, reactions and descriptions in the story are seen through the main character's eyes.

·  This description provides an essential clue to the character.

·  ... leads to comical effect.

·  ... intensifies the total effect.

·  ... brings out the character's essential nature.

·  ... adds much to the revelation of...

·  ... stands in contrast to ...

·  The compositional arrangement of the text (stylistic devices) help to bring the idea out (to create tense atmosphere, to show the real state of things).

·  The author resorts to high-flown phrases/expressions to show ...

·  The enumeration shows the author's striving for an exhaustive and fully detailed presentation of the phenomenon dealt with.

·  The choice of vocabulary and stylistic devices is admirable.

·  The following stylistic devices contribute to the expressiveness of the passage.

·  The author makes extensive use of ... to render the story more vivid, convincing, more real and emotional.

·  All the descriptive attributes used in the passage serve to convey to the reader ...

·  An additional humorous effect is produced by ...

·  The description of ...is contrasted to that of...
Features of Narrative Prose_

Novels and short stories can use language in such a wide variety of ways that it is difficult to be specific about linguistic and stylistic features. There are, however, certain features that are worth looking out for.

Manner

The manner can be formal or informal, depending upon the relationship the author wants to create with the reader. Often the modern novel will try to re-create the language of everyday, particularly in first person narratives (stories told from the point of view of one individual, using the first person singular pronoun I). Older novels tend to be more formal in their address to the reader. It is also important to decide what the author's attitude to characters and events is: irony, for instance, allows the author to write in a contradictory way - what is actually meant is contrary to what the words on the page appear to say. An author may use irony to show the difference between how things are and how they might be; to mock certain characters; to highlight a discrepancy between how characters see a situation and its true nature; or to emphasise that a reader knows more than the characters themselves.

Point of View

The point of view is central to narrative prose because the reader needs to know who is telling the story. In a first person narrative, the I narrator relates the events she or he experiences. This allows the reader a direct insight into the character's mind. Often the experiences are viewed retrospectively so that there is a difference between the character's mature and immature personalities (for instance, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte; Great Expectations by Charles Dickens; A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess). The choice of a first person narrator produces a personal relationship which tends to encourage the reader to empathise with the main character. Because this approach gives only one person's view of the story, however, it can biased, showing a limited understanding of the events and other characters.

In a third person narrative the narrator is often omniscient - all-seeing and all-knowing. Such narrators tend to give an overview of the story. Because there is no I, the narration is presented to the reader directly without an intermediary. There are two kinds of omniscient narrator: the unintrusive and the intrusive. The unintrusive narrator allows the author to tell the story from a distance, without the reader being aware of a persona telling the story or making judgements. The action is presented without many explicit comments or judgements. Writers like Graham Green and E. M. Forster are known for their invisible narrators. The intrusive narrator, on the other hand, explicitly comments on events and characters, often pointing to the significance of what they are presenting and providing a moral interpretation. Authors like Jane Austin and George Eliot intervene in their novels, explicitly guiding and influencing the reader's judgements.

Normally, third person narrators relate events and make descriptions using the declarative mood.The interrogative or imperative moods can be used to make direct addresses to the reader, inviting judgements or opinions on events and characters. Such addresses will often be marked by a change from simple past tense to simple present. Novelists are interested in more than just events. The thoughts and opinions of characters are central to the creation of a fictional world. In the nineteenth century, many novelists used interior monologues to build up the thought patterns of their characters. Although supposedly reflecting a character's thoughts, the author would order and pattern these so that they were fluent and logical. In the twentieth century, writers like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf were some of the first to experiment with stream of consciousness writing, in which thought patterns appear on the page randomly. To show how chaotic and jumbled thoughts often are, writers can manipulate syntax and layout. This approach attempts to convey on the page the complexity of the human mind.

Lexis

The lexis can be simple or complicated, formal or colloquial, descriptive or evaluative. The choices made depend upon the author's intentions.

Words may be subject specific, belonging to a particular field; they may be idiosyncratic, clearly linked to a particular character; or they may be linked to a real or imaginary dialect appropriate to the setting of the novel. The connotations of the words chosen will build up a particular viewpoint of the fictional world. Nouns may be abstract or concrete, depending upon whether the prose focuses on events or states of mind. Proper nouns may be used to give the fictional world and its inhabitants a concrete basis. The intentional omission of names may create a mysterious atmosphere.

Modifiers may provide physical, psychological, emotive or visual detail. They may focus on colour, sound or noise to create the fictional world. It is through the modifiers that authors can influence the reader - they can describe or evaluate using words with positive or negative connotations which direct the reader to respond in chosen ways. Modifiers are crucial in forming a parallel world; in helping the reader to make decisions about events, characters and places; and in adding depth to any underlying message.

Verbs tell the reader about the kinds of actions and processes occurring. The use of stative verbs suggests that the author's interest lies in description, whether it be of setting or states of mind; dynamic verbs place an emphasis on what is happening, implying that the author is more interested in action than in contemplation. All consideration of the lexis of fictional prose must take account of the time and place in which the novel is set. Authors' lexical choices will vary depending upon the kinds of worlds and the people they are creating.

Speech

Writers can adopt a variety of approaches to convey the speech of their characters on the page. Direct speech is an exact copy of the precise words spoken, allowing characters to speak for themselves. This approach gives prominence to the speaker's point of view. If writers vary spelling, vocabulary, word order and so on, it is possible to produce an accurate phonological, lexical and syntactical written version of characters' accents and dialects. Indirect speech reports what someone has said, using a subordinate that clause. The person who is reporting the conversation intervenes as an interpreter by selecting the reported words. This submerges the original speaker's point of view.

Free indirect speech is a form of indirect speech in which the main reporting clause (for instance, he said that ...) is omitted. This merges the approach of both direct and indirect speech. It uses the same third person pronouns and past tense as indirect speech, but reproduces the actual words spoken more accurately. It can be used to create irony because it gives the reader the flavour of characters' words, while keeping the narrator in a position where he or she can intervene. Free direct speech can also be used to direct readers' sympathy away from certain characters or to indicate changes in the role of a character. Writers can present a character's thoughts in a similar range of ways.

Grammar

The grammar of narrative prose will reflect the kind of world created and the kind of viewpoint offered. In many ways, novelists are freer in their potential choices than writers are in other varieties - in fiction, non-standard grammar and lexis are acceptable because they are part of a created world and are an integral part of the characters who inhabit that world.

Most of the fiction is written in the simple past tense - extensive use of other tenses or timescales is worth commenting on. The effects created by writing completely in the present tense, for instance, can be quite dramatic. Mood will vary depending upon the requirements of the author. Declarative mood is most common, but interrogatives and imperatives are used to vary the pace and change the focus. In fiction, sentence structures are often complex. When simple sentences are used, they are often emphatic or striking. Because writers can experiment, there can also be sentences that do not appear to conform to standard grammatical patterns. Writers vary the kind of sentence structure they use, to maintain readers' interest and to make their fictional world seem alive.

Metaphorical Language

Metaphorical language is a writer's way of personalising the world created. Metaphors, symbolism and so on tell the reader something about an author's relationship with the fictional world. Such language usage makes the imaginary world real and guides the reader in judging the characters, setting and events.

Rhetorical Techniques

The rhetorical techniques a writer chooses persuade readers to involve themselves or distance themselves from the fictional world. Juxtapositions, listing, parallelism and so on can be used to influence the reader's perception of characters, settings and events. Patterning may be stylistic or phonological, but the end results all guide readers' responses. Marked themes, the passive voice and end focus all throw emphasis on certain elements of the text, highlighting things that the author considers to be important.

Evaluation of Fiction_

When we evaluate a story we do two different things. First, we assess its literary quality; we make a judgment about how good it is, how successfully it realizes its intensions, how effectively it pleases us. Second, we consider the values the story endorses or refuses.

An evaluation is essentially a judgment, an opinion about a work formulated as a conclusion. We may agree or disagree with the father's forgiveness or the elder brother's complaint in "The Prodigal Son". We may confirm or deny the models of behavior illustrated in stories. However we evaluate them, though, we invariably measure the story's values against our own.

Although evaluation is partly an unconscious process, we can make it more deliberate and more fully conscious. We simply need to ask ourselves how we respond to the values a work supports, and why. In doing so we should be able to consider our own values more clearly and perhaps discuss more sensibly and fairly why we agree or disagree with the values a story displays.

When we evaluate a story, we appraise it according to our own special combination of cultural, moral, and aesthetic values. Our cultural values derive from or live as members of families and societies. These values are affected by our race and gender and by the language we speak. Our moral values reflect our ethical norms - what we consider to be good and evil, right and wrong. These values are influenced by our religious beliefs and sometimes by our political convictions. Our aesthetic values determine what we see as beautiful or ugly, well or ill made. Over time, with education and experience, our values often change.

As our lives and outlooks change, we may change the way we view particular literary works. Just as individual tastes in 1iterature change over time, so do collective literary tastes. Literary works, like musical compositions and political ideas go in and out of fashion.

Our evaluation may also be linked to our first experience of the story, to first impressions based on unconsidered reactions. If our initial reaction to a story or a character is unsympathetic, we may be reluctant to change our interpretation later, even if we discover convincing evidence to warrant such a change.

Of the kinds of evaluations we make in reading fiction, those about a story's aesthetic qualities are hardest to discuss. Aesthetic responses are difficult to describe because they involve our memories and sensations, our subjective impressions. They also involve our expectations, which are further affected by our prior experience of reading fiction. And they are additionally complicated by our tendency to react quickly and decisively to what we like and dislike, often without knowing why. Our preference for one kind of fiction over another complicates matters still further. When we evaluate a story, we should judge it against what it attempts to do, what it is, rather than against something it is not.

How we arrive at an aesthetic evaluation is no easy matter. We develop our aesthetic responses to fiction by letting the informed responses of other experienced readers enrich our own perceptions, by determining the criteria for what makes a story "good", and by gradually developing our sense of literary tact - the kind of balanced judgment that comes with experience in reading and living coupled with thoughtful reflection on both. It comes only with practice and patience. What we should strive for in evaluating fiction is to understand the different kinds of values it present and to clarify our own attitudes, dispositions, and values in responding to them.

Style of Language

When a writer resolts to the language of every day life neither rich nor refined and which is especially typical on dialogs we call this style Colloquial.

When a writer resolts to the language which is not widely used in everyday life and isn't typical of spoken English because it's "too correct" we call this style Bookish.

When there are many scientific words in a story we speak about Scientific style.

When there are words typical of this or that profession we speak about Professional words in a story.
Essentials of Stylistics_

Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by things, by people and by animals.

E.g.: ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, roar, ping-pong, etc.

Alliteration is the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonants, in close succession, often in the initial position.

E.g.: "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before." (E. A. Poe)

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. In verse rhyming words are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

E.g.: "I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers." (internal rhyme) (Shelly)

Rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different element or features.

E.g.: "The high-sloping roof, of a fine sooty pink was almost Danish, and two 'ducky ' little windows looked out of it, giving an impression that every tall servant lived up there" (J. Galsworthy)

Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Bathos means bringing together unrelated elements as they denoted things equal in rank or belonging to one class, as if they were of the same stylistic aspect. By being forcibly linked together, the elements acquire a slight modification of meaning.

E.g.: "They grieved for those who perished with the cutter And also for the biscuit-casks and butter." (Byron)

Metaphor means transference of some quality from one object to another. In other words, it describes one thing in terms of another, creating an implicit comparison.

E.g.: "In a caverni under is fettered the thunder, It struggles and howls at fits? (Shelly)

Personification is a description of an object or an idea as if it were a human being.

E.g.: The long arm of the law will catch him in the end.

Metonymy is the term used when the name of an attribute or object is substituted for the object itself. It is based on some kind of association connecting two concepts which are represented by the dictionary and contextual meanings.

E.g.: the Stage = the theatrical profession; the Crown = the King or Queen; a hand = a worker; etc.

Metonуmу is a transfer of the name of one object to another with which it is in some way connected.

E.g.: The hall applauded.

Irony is a figure of speech by means of which a word or words express the direct opposite of what their primary dictionary meanings denote.

E.g.: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one pocket.

Irony is the clash of two opposite meanings within the same context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Bitter or politically aimed irony is called SARCASM.

Е. g.: Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal and, on the other, transferred.

E.g.:" Whether the Nymph Shall stain her Honour or her new Brocade Or lose her Heart or necklace at a Ball." (Pope)

Zeugma - the context allows to realize two meanings of the same polysemantic word without the repetition of the word itself.

E.g.: Mr. Stiggins ... took his hat and his leave.

Pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase, more independent than zeugma.

E.g.: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? One trains the mind and the other minds the train.

Pun is play on words.

E.g.: "Did you hit a woman with a child?" - "No, Sir, I hit her with a brick."

Epithet is usually an attributive word or phrase expressing some quality of a person, thing or phenomenon. The epithet always expresses the author's individual attitude towards what he describes, his personal appraisal of it, and is a powerful means in his hands of conveying his emotions to the reader and in this way securing the desired effect.

E.g.: wild wind, loud ocean, heart-burning smile, slavish knees, etc.

Epithet is a word or a group of words giving an expressive characterization of the subject described.

E.g.: fine open-faced boy; generous and soft in heart; wavy flaxen hair.

Reversed Epithet is composed of two nouns linked in an of-phrase. The subjective, evaluating, emotional element is embodied not in the noun attribute but in the noun structurally described.

E.g.: "...a dog of a fellow" (Dickens); "a devil of a job" (Maugham); "A little Flying Dutchman of a cab" (Galsworthy)

Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense.

E.g.: delicious poison, low skyscraper, pleasantly ugly, sweet sorrow, proud humility, 'She was a damned nice woman', etc.

Antonomasia is the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word.

E.g.: "I suspect that the Noes and Don't Knows would far outnumber the Yesses" (The Spectator)

Simile is an expressed imaginative comparison based on the likeness of two objects or ideas belonging to different classes (not to be confused with comparison weighing two objects belonging to one class). Similes have formal words in their structure such as like, as, such as, as if, seem.

E.g.: "I saw the jury return, moving like underwater swimmers..."

Simile is a comparison of two things which are quite different, but which have one important quality in common. The purpose of the simile is to highlight this quality.

E.g.: Andrew's face looked as if it were made of a rotten apple.

Periphrasis (Circumlocution) is the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. In other words, it is a round-about or indirect way to name a familiar object or phenomenon.

E.g.: a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer), the fair sex (women), a play of swords (a battle), etc.

Eupheism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more accepted one.

E.g.: to pass away/to join the majority (to die), a four-letter word (an obscenity), etc.

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon.

E.g.: a thousand pardons, scared to death, 'I'd give the world to see him', 'I would give the whole world to know', etc.

Cliche is an expression that has become hackneyed and trite.

E.g.: rosy dreams of youth, to grow by leaps and bounds, the patter of rain, to withstand the test of time, etc.

Allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing.

E.g.: "'Pie in the sky' for Railmen" means nothing but promises (a line from the well-known workers' song: "You'll get pie in the sky when you die").

Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Represented Speech renders the character's thoughts which were not uttered aloud. It is a purely literary phenomenon never appearing in oral speech.

E.g.: He looked at the distant green wall. It would be a long walk in this rain, and a muddy one ... . Anyway, what would they find? Lots of trees.

Parallel Construction is a device in which the necessary condition is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession.

E.g.: "There were,..., real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in ". (Dickens)

Parallel constructions (or parallelism) present identical structure of two or more successive clauses or sentences.

E.g.: Passage after passage did he explore; room after room did he peep into.

Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction) is based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases.

E.g.: "Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down." (Coleridge) "His jokes were sermons, and his sermons jokes". (Byron)

Chiasmus is a pattern of two steps where the second repeats the structure of the first in a reversed manner.

E.g.: Mr. Boffin looked full at the man, and the man looked full at Mr. Boffin.

Rhetorical Question is a statement in the form of a question which needs no answer.

E.g.: Why do we need refreshment, my friends? Why can we not fly? Is it because we are calculated to walk?

Elliptical Sentence is a sentence where one of the main members is omitted.

E.g.: "Very windy, isn't it?" - "Very." - "But it's not raining." - "Not yet." - "Better than yesterday."

Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress or strong emotion.

E.g.: "I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position in such a case as that. I am above the rest of mankind, in such a case as that. I can act with philosophy in such case as that." (Dickens)

Repetition is observed when some parts of the sentence or sentences are repeated. It is employed as a means of emphasis.

E.g.: A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face; the smile extended into a laugh; the laugh into a roar, and the roar became general.

·      Anaphora is when the repeated word (or phrase) comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases.

·      Epiphora is when the repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases.

·      Anadiplosis is structured so that the last word or phrase of one part of one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the two parts together.

·      Framing is an arrangement of repetition in which the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it.

Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity, remote though it may seem.

E.g.: "Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend and his sole mourner." (Dickens)

Suspense is arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader's attention is held and his interest is kept up.

E.g.: "Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. Was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw." (Charles Lamb)

Climax (Gradation) is an arrangement of sentences (or homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance.

E.g.: "Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question." (Dickens)

Anticlimax is an arrangement of ideas in ascending order of significance,or they may be poetical or elevated, but the final one, which the reader expects to be the culminating one, as in climax, is trifling or farcical. There is a sudden drop from the lofty or serious to the ridiculous.

E.g.: "This war-like speech, received with many a cheer, Had filled them with desire of flame, and beer." (Byron)

Antithesis is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs.

E.g.: "A saint abroad, and a devil at home." (Bunyan) "Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven." (Milton)

Antithesis is a structure consisting of two steps, the lexical meanings of which are opposite to each other.

E.g.: In marriage the upkeep of a woman is often the downfall of a man.

Asyndeton is a connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, the connective being deliberately omitted.

E.g.: "Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered." (Galsworthy)

Polysyndeton is the connection of sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part.

E.g.: "The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect." (Dickens)

Ellipsis imitates the common features of colloquial language, where the situation predetermines not the omission of certain members of the sentence, but their absence.

E.g.: "Nothing so difficult as the beginning." (Byron)

Inversion is broken word order.

E.g.: Into a singularly restricted and indifferent environment Ida Zobel was born.

Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis) is a break in the narrative used for some stylistic effect.

E.g.: "You just come home or I'll..."

Litotes is a peculiar use of negative constructions aimed at establishing a positive feature in a person or thing.

E.g.: "He was not without taste ..." "It troubled him not a little ... "

Exercises on the Use of Stylistic Devices_

Find stylistic devices in the following sentences. Comment on them.

1.     The laugh in her eyes died and was replaced by something else.

2.     For every look that passed between them, and the word they spoke, and every card they played, the dwarf had eyes and ears.

3.     "If there's a war, what are you going to be in?" - "The Government, I hope," Tom said. "Touring the lines on an armoured car, my great belly shaking like a jelly. Hey, did you hear that? That's poetry."

4.     Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old.

5.     The girl gave him a lipsticky smile.

6.     The silence as the two men stared at one another was louder than thunder.

7.     There comes a period in every man's life, but she is just a semicolon in his.

8.     "I'm going to give you some good advice." - "Oh! Pray don't. One should never give a woman anything she can't wear in the evening."

9.     Up came the file and down sat the editor, with Mr. Pickwick at his side.

10.  Gentleness in passion! What could have been more seductive to the scared, starved heart of that girl?

11.  Poor boy ... . No father, no mother, no anyone.

12.  It were better that he knew nothing. Better for common sense, better for him, better for me.

13.  The coach was waiting, the horses were fresh, the roads were wet, and the driver was willing.

14.  There are so many sons that won't have anything to do with their fathers, and so many fathers who won't speak to their sons.

15.  The mechanics are underpaid, and underfed, and overworked.

16.  I hear your voice - it's like an angel's sigh.

17.  He held the cigarette in his mouth, tasting it, feeling its roundness, for a long time before he lit it. Then, with a sigh, feeling, well, I've earned it, he lit the cigarette.

18.  And then in a moment she would come to life and be as quick and restless as a monkey.

19.  The sky was dark and gloomy, the air damp and raw.

20.  "Our father is dead." - "I know." - "How the hell do you know?" - "Station agent told me. How long ago did he die?" - "About a month." - "What of?" - "Pneumonia." - "Buried here?" - "No. In Washington."

21.  She had her breakfast and her bath.

22.  ... whispered the spinster aunt with true spinster-aunt-like envy ... .

23.  A team of horses couldn't draw her back now; the bolts and bars of the old Bastille couldn't keep her.

24.  I have only one good quality - overwhelming belief in the brains and hearts of our nation, our state, our town.

25.  It was you who made me a liar, - she cried silently.

26.  I looked at the gun, and the gun looked at me.

27.  England has two eyes, Oxford and Cambridge. They are the two eyes of England, and two intellectual eyes.