Реферат Medieval english written records
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Federal Education Agency
Irkutsk State Linguistic University
Theoretical Linguistic Department
Middle English written records
Term Paper
Student of Group ТМПА1-06-02
Dorzhieva A.V
Scientific Advisor:
Y.N. Karypkina
Philol. Cand., Assoc. Prof
Irkutsk 2010
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...3
PART 1. ANTOLOGY OF OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE…………………………………………………………………….5
1.1. Old English literature in the period of Anglo-Saxon ethnic extension……………………………………………………………..5
1.2. The Middle English corpus………………………………..................9
1.2.1. Jeffrey Chaucer..........................................................................11
1.2.2. Principal Middle English written records…………..................13
PART 2. CONCEPTUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE ………...........................................................................................16
2.1. Knighthood and Chivalry as a cultural dominant in the Middle English literature…………………………………………………………………………..16
2.2. The ideal of chivalry in “Sir Gawain and Green Knight”……………..17
2.3. The concept of Courtly love in the English Medieval epoch………….20
2.4. Christian religious dominant…………………………………………..21
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………...24
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………..26
INTRODUCTION
The language of a past time is known by the quality of its literature. Charters and records yield their secrets to the philologist and contribute their quota of words and inflections to our dictionaries and grammars. But it is in literature that a language displays its full power, its ability to convey in vivid and memorable form the thoughts and emotions of a people. The Middle English literature is fortunately one of the richest and most significant of any preserved. Because it is the language mobilized, the language in action, we must say a word about it.
Generally speaking, this literature is of two sorts. Some of it was undoubtedly brought to England by the Germanic and Norman conquerors from their continental homes and preserved for a time in oral tradition. The prevalent ethno-cultural dominants of this epoch considerably influenced upon the whole English literature. In this work we can trace their gradual formation from the early times of the development of the old Germanic writing system. In the course of time three streams mingle in Middle English epoch: the religious, chivalrous and courtly literature forming a unique mixture and a tangle of genres characteristic of medieval writing.
The object of this thesis is the process of establishing the national literary language in England throughout the Old English period up to the Middle Ages.
The purpose of the research can be formulated as follows: the representation of the Middle English literature with its immediate connection with main concepts of that time such as religious, courtly and chivalrous one in particular.
The subject of the research is the historical, cultural and social backgrounds for the formation of Middle English literature.
The purpose, object and subject of the research stipulated the arrangement and consecutive solving the following goals:
1 Give a short retrospective view on early stage of English literature development
2 Consideration of the medieval English literature at the conceptual angle
3 Detecting the principal Middle English written records
During the work the following methods of researching were applied
- The learning and making analysis of the literature according to the topic of the research;
- Historical - philological method.
PART 1. ANTOLOGY OF OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE
1.1 . Old English literature in the period of Anglo-Saxon ethnic extension
As a result of British invasion at the end of the VI century a new West-Germanic ethno-social system, traditionally called Anglo-Saxon, began forming. It brought about some considerable changes in the social structure of the Anglo-Saxon society. To get a better understanding of the Anglo-Saxon society it is worth considering the Old-English words of status. The key-words are given below in order of precedence:
cynig (chief, later the founder the royal dynasty)
ealdorman (sub-king, a kind of hereditary aristocracy; later replaced by the term eorl)
pegn (warrior)
ceorl (a free man, farmer)
peow (a slave, servant)
The given structure provided an effective functioning of considerably tough ethno-social system needed for the Anglo-Saxons during the period of their ethnic extension when the former tribal organization of the society did not met the stereotypes evoked by military orientation of the ethnic dominant at that time. There emerged a peculiar class of professional warriors who swore to their lords in exchange for lands and gifts seized in the military campaigns. The kings and noble people belonged to the ruling upper circles, whereas professional soldiers-thegns- took an interim niche in the social hierarchy standing between noble and common people. M. Lehnert describes “a pegn” as a personal servant who was one degree higher in the ranks of freeman than a “a ceorl”. As servants of the King the status of “pegn” gradually rose, until they formed the elected nobility of the Kingdom.
The analysis of early Old English written records allows to single out two distinct imperatives throughout the period of the Anglo-Saxon ethnic extension. On the one hand it was –bellicosity, the orientation to the persecution of the war and submission of the person’s concerns to this imperative and on the other hand- “an archetypal fear” to be reduced to the status of social outcast, a person deprived of any kind of rights, the most important of which was the right “to be a human”. the cowards were threatened with exile. It must have been the severest punishment for their “inglorious act” as a shameful life to exile, a person without his kin, was much worse than death. In the world of instability and violence the fear of being reduced to the position of an exile was so strong that it became one of the prevailing motives in the early Anglo-Saxon literature.
Whereas warfare for the sake of wealth provided the motive power that moulded ethnic stereotypes thus organizing the passionateness of the early Anglo-Saxons in the period of their ethnic extension. The same warfare motive underlay the ethnics justifying the prevailing stereotypes. This epoch of great deeds and brave heroes is known in literature as the heroic age. The folk epic Beowulf is considered to represent the most telling evidence of the outlook and temper of the Germanic mind [24: 84-88].
The epic “Beowulf” is of about three thousand lines. This poem seems to have originated on the Continent, but when and where are not now to be known. It may have been carried to England in the form of ballads by the Anglo-Saxons; or it may be Scandinavian material, later brought in by Danish or Norwegian pirates. At any rate it seems to have taken on its present form in England during the seventh and eighth centuries. It relates how the hero Beowulf, coming over the sea to the relief of King Hrothgar, delivers him from a monster, Grendel, and then from the vengeance of Grendel's only less formidable mother. Returned home in triumph, Beowulf much later receives the due reward of his valor by being made king of his own tribe, and meets his death while killing a fire-breathing dragon which has become a scourge to his people. As he appears in the poem, Beowulf is an idealized Anglo-Saxon hero, but in origin he may have been any one of several other different things. Perhaps he was the old Germanic god Beowa, and his exploits originally allegories, like some of those in the Greek mythology, of his services to man; he may, for instance, first have been the sun, driving away the mists and cold of winter and of the swamps, hostile forces personified in Grendel and his mother. Or, Beowulf may really have been a great human fighter who actually killed some especially formidable wild beasts, and whose superhuman strength in the poem results, through the similarity of names, from his being confused with Beowa. This is the more likely because there is in the poem a slight trace of authentic history. Beowulf' presents an interesting though very incomplete picture of the life of the upper, warrior, caste among the northern Germanic tribes during their later period of barbarism on the Continent and in England, a life more highly developed than that of the Anglo-Saxons before their conquest of the island.
Outside of Beowulf and a few fragments, the recording of Anglo-Saxon heroic story begins with a ninth-century entry in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 755 (actually 757). To this we can add a few of the annals devoted to the combats of King Alfred's son and grandsons in the tenth century and stop at some point near the end of King Aethelred's reign in 1016. While not a Chronicle poem, The Battle of Maldon has a place in this range, if only as an inspired response to what otherwise the Chronicle (in the Canterbury and Peterborough manuscripts ) records for 991 as ealdorman Byrthnoth's death in battle at Maldon. Typically, guides, translations and readers introducing students to Old English texts highlight three of the stories from this range of years: the story of West Saxon feud we call "Cynewulf and Cyneheard" (chronicle entry 755), The Battle of Brunanburh, (entry for 937), and The Battle of Maldon (sometime after 991). Traditionally, and here all introductions in Old English readers follow suit, these narratives are seen as enshrining, in some literary intensified way, heroic values reflecting their ancient, Germanic roots.
There is a dark age between the arrival of the Anglo- Saxons and the first arrival of Old English manuscripts. A few scattered inscriptions in the language date from the 5th and 6th centuries, written in the runic alphabet which the invaders brought with them, but these give very little information about what the language was like. The literary age began only after arrival of the Roman missionaries, led by Augustine, who came there to Kent in 597 AD. Because of the increasingly literary climate old English manuscripts also began to be written-much earlier, indeed, that the earliest vernacular texts from other north European countries. The first texts dating from around 700, are glossaries of Latin words translated into English, and a few early inscriptions and poems. But very little material remains from this period. Doubtless many manuscripts were burned during the 8th century Vikings invasion. The chief literary work of this period as it was mentioned before was Beowulf, survives in a single copy, made around 1,000 possibly some 250 years after it was composed. There are a number of short poems, again almost entirely preserved in the late manuscripts, over half of them concerned with Christian subjects-legends of the saints, extracts from the Bible, and devotional pieces. Several others reflect the Germanic tradition, dealing with such topics as war, travelling, patriotism, and celebration. Most extant Old English texts were written in the period following reign of King Alfred, who arranged for many Latin works to be translated-including Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. But the total corpus is extremely small makes about 3, 5 million-the equivalent of about 30 medium-sized modern novels. Only 5 per cent of this total is poetry [16: 10].
In the 10th century when the old heroic epic verses were already declining, some new poems were composed and inserted in the prose historical chronicles: the battle of Brunanburgh, the battle of Maldon. They bear resemblance to the ancient heroic poems but deal with contemporary events: the wars of the Scots, the Picts and the raiders from Scandinavia.
Hence, the literature of the Old English period was not notable for its diversity of literature genres. The leading place was taken by heroic romances and religious writings. Obviously, heroes of the old times had no time to think of love as in ancient epic romances love did not play any important role. However, the situation considerably changed in the subsequent period.
1.2. The Middle English corpus
The Middle English period has a much richer documentation than is found in the old English. This is partly a result of the post-conquest political situation. The newly centralized monarchy commissioned national and local surveys, beginning with the Domesday Book and there is a marked increase in the number of public and private documents- mandates, charters, contracts, tax-rolls, and other administrative or judicial papers. However, the early material is limited value of those interested in the linguistic history of the English because it is largely written in Latin or French, and the only relevant data which can be extracted relate to English and the personal names. Most religious publication falls into the same category, with Latin maintaining its presence throughout the period as the official language of the Church.
A major difference from old English is the absence of a continuing tradition of historical writing in the native language, as in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle-a function which Latin supplanted, and which was not revived until the 15th century.
Material in English appears as a trickle in the 13th century, but within 150 years it has become a flood. In the early period, we can see a great deal of religious prose writing, in the form of homilies, tracts, lives of the Saints, and the other aids to devotion and meditation. Sometimes a text was written with a specific readership in mind; the Ancrene Rewle (Anchorites Guide), for example, was compiled by a spiritual director for three noblewomen who had abandoned the world to live as anchoresses. During the 14th century, there is a marked increase in the number of translated writings from French to Latin, and of the texts for teaching these languages. Guild records, proclaims, proverbs, dialogues, allegories, and the letters illustrate the diverse range of new styles and genres. Towards the end of the century, the translations of the Bible inspired by John Wycliff appear amid considerable controversy, and the associated movement produces many manuscripts. Finally, in the 1430es, there is a vast output in the English from the office of the London Chancery scribes, which strongly influenced the development of the standard written language.
Poetry presents a puzzle. The Anglo-Saxon poetic tradition apparently dies out in the 11th century, to reappear patchily in the 13th. A lengthy poetic history of a Britain is knows as Lagamon’s Brut as we have mentioned above, one of the earliest to survive from Middle English, and in the 14th century come the important texts of Piers Plowman and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. What is surprising in that the alliterative Old English style is still present in these all works, despite an apparent break in poetic continuity of at least hundred years. The conundrum has generated much discussion. Perhaps the alliterative technique was retained though prose: several Middle English prose texts are strongly alliterative, and it is sometimes difficult to tell from a manuscript which genre (poetry or prose) a piece belongs to, because the line divisions are not shown. Perhaps the Old English style survived through the medium of oral transmission. Or perhaps it is simply that most poetic manuscripts have been lost. Middle English poetry was inevitably much influenced by French literary traditions, both in content and style. One of the earliest examples is the 13th –century verse-contest known as The OWL and the Nightingale. Later works include romances in the French style, secular lyrics, bestiaries, biblical poetry, Christian legends, hymns, prayers and elegies.
The mystical dream –vision popular in Italy and France, is well illustrated by the poem modern editors have called Pea, in which the writer recalls the death of his two-year- old daughter, who then acts as his spiritual comforter. Drama also begins to make its presence felt, in the form of dialogues, pageants, and the famous cycles of mystery plays. Much of the Middle English literature is of unknown authorship, but th end of the period this situation has changed. Among the prominent names which emerge in the latter part of the 14th century are John Gower, William Langland, and some time later John Lydgate, Thomas Malory, William Caxton, and the poets who are collectively known as Chaucerians.
Rather than a somewhat random collection of interesting texts, there is now a major body of literature, in the modern sense. It is this which provides the final part of the bridge between Middle and Early Modern English.
The flourishing of literature, which marks the seconds half of the 14th c., apart from its cultural significance, testifies, to the complete reestablishment of English as the language of writing. Some authors wrote in their local dialect from outside London, but most of them used the London dialect or forms of the language combining London and provincial traits. Towards the end of the century the London dialect had become the principal type of language used in literature a sort of literary ‘pattern’ to be imitated by provincial authors.
The literary text of the late 14th c. preserved in numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genres. Translation continued, but original compositions were produced in abundance; party was more prolific than prose. This period of literary florescence is known as the ‘age of Chaucer’; the greatest name in English literature before Shakespeare other writers are referred to as ‘Chaucer’s contemporaries’) [16: 34-37].
1.2.1. Geoffrey Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) was by far the most outstanding figure of the time. A hundred years later William Caxton, the first English printer, called him ‘the worshipful father and fist founder and embellisher of ornate eloquence in our language. ‘In many books on the history of English literature and the history of English Chaucer is described as the founder of the literary language.
His carried works more of less imitative if other authors – Latin, French or Italian – though they bear abundant evidence of his skill. He never wrote in any other language than English. The culmination of Chaucer‘s work as a poet; his great unfinished collection of stories ‘The Canterbury Tales’.
Chaucer wrote in a dialect which in the main coincided with that used in documents produced in London shortly before his time and for a long time after. Although he did not really create the literary language, as a poet of outstanding talent he made better use if it than contemporaries and set up 2 pattern to be followed in the 15th c. His poems were copied so many times that over sixty manuscripts of ‘The Cantervary Tales’ have survived to this day. No books were among the first to be printed, a hundred years after their composition.
Chauser’s literary language, based in the mixed (largely East Midland) London dialect is known as classical M.E. In the 15th and 16th centuries it became the basis of the national literary English language.
The 15th century could produce nothing worthy to rank with Chaucer. The two prominent poets, Thomas Hoccleve and John Lydgate, were chiefly translators and imitators. The style of Caucer’s successors is believed to have drawn farther away from everyday speech; it was highly affected in character, abounding in abstact words and strongly influenced by Latin rhetoric (it is termed ‘aureate language’) [21: 160- 162].
The tiny voice of this paper work can add nothing to the critical acclaim which has been given to Chaucer’s poetic and the narrative achievements or to his sights into medieval attitudes and society; but it can affirm with some conviction the importance of his work to any history of the language. It is partly matter of a quantity of a quality- one complete edition prints over 43, 000 of a poetry, as well as two of a major prose works –but more crucial is the breath and variety of his language, which ranges from the polished complexity of high flown rhetoric to the natural simplicity of domestic chat. No previous author has shown such a range, and Chaucer’s writing- in addition to its merits- is thus unique in the evidence it has provided about the state of medieval grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
Chaucer’s best-known work, The Canterbury Tales, is not of course a guide to the spoken language of the time; it is a variety of the written language which has been carefully crafted. It is uses a regular metrical structure and rhyme scheme-itself a departure from the free rhythms and the alliteration of a much earlier poetry. It contains many variations in word order, dictated by the demands of the prosody. There are also frequent literary allusions and turns of a phrase which make the text difficult to follow. What has impressed readers so much is that, despite the constraints, Chaucer has managed to capture vividly the intriguing characters of the speakers, and to reflect naturally the colloquial features of their speech. In no other author, is there better support for the view that there is an underlying correspondence between the natural rhythm of English poetry and that of English everyday conversation [16: 38].
1.2.2. Principal Middle English written records
The literature written I England during the Middle English period reflects fairly accurately the changes fortunes of English. During the time that French was the language best understood by the upper classes, the books they read or listened to were French. The rewards of patronage were seldom to be expected by those who wrote in English; with them we must look for other incentives for writing. Such incentives were most often found among members of the religious body, interested in promoting right living and in the care of souls. Accordingly, the literature in English that has come down to us from this period is almost exclusively religious or admonitory.
The Ancrene Riwle, the Ormulum, a series of paraphrases and interpretations of Gospel passages, and a group of saint’s lives and short homiletic pieces showing the survival of an Old English literary tradition in the southwest are the principal works of this class. The two outstanding exceptions are Layamon’s “Brut” based largely on Wace, and the astonishing debate between The Owl and the Nightingale, a long poem in which two birds exchange recriminations in the liveliest fashion. There was certainly a body of popular literature that circulated orally among the people, just as at a later date in the English and Scottish popular ballads did, but such literature has left slight traces in this period. The hundred years from 1150 to 1250 have been justly called the Period of religious Record [16: 38].
The separation of the English nobility from France by about 1250 and the spread of English among the upper class is manifested in the next hundred years of English literature. Types of polite literature that had hitherto had appeared in French now appear in English. Of these types most popular was the romance. Only one English romance exists from an earlier date than 1250, but from this time translations and adaptations from French begin to be made, and in the course of the fourteen century their number become quite large. The period of 1250-1350 is a period of Religious and secular literature of the English language. The general adoption of English by all classes, which had taken place by the latter half of the fourteenth century, gave rise to a body of literature that represents the high point in English literary achievement in the Middle Ages. The period from 1350 to 1400 has been called the Period of Great Individual Writers. The chief name is that of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), the greatest English poet before Shakespeare. Not to mention his delightful minor poems, he is the author of a long narrative poem telling the story of the unhappy love of
Troilus and Criseyde and, most famous of his works, the Canterbury Tales, which, besides giving us in the general prologue a matchless portrait gallery of contemporary types, constitutes in the variety of the tales a veritable anthology of medieval literature. To this period belongs William Langland, the reputed author of a long social allegory. Piers Plowman (1362-1387); John Wycliffe (d. 1384), putative translator of the Bible and author of a large and influential body of controversial prose; and the unknown poet who wrote not only the finest of the Middle English romances. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, but three allegorical and religious poems of great beauty, including Pearl. Any one of these men would have made the later fourteenth century an outstanding period in Middle English literature. Together they constitute a striking proof of the secure position the English language had attained.
The fifteenth century is sometimes known as the Imitative Period because so much of the poetry then written was written in emulation of Chaucer. It is also spoken of as a Transition Period, because it covers a large part of the interval between the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare period has been unjustly neglected. Hawes are not negligible, though admittedly overshadowed by some of their great predecessors, and at the end of the century we have the prose of Malory and Caxton. In the north the Scottish Chaucerians, particularly Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, and Lindsay, produced significant work. These authors carry on the tradition of English as a literary medium into the Renaissance. Thus, Middle English literature follows and throws interesting light on the fortunes of the English language [14: 151-152].
PART 2. CONCEPTUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE
2.1. Knighthood and Chivalry as a culturally dominant element in the Middle English literature
After the Norman Conquest when invaders created a new sub-ethnic system in the ethnic system of the subjugated folk and their contacts with English people passed on from the interethnic to the intra-ethnic level, it became obvious that the categorization of a newly acquired interethnic contact’s experience gave birth to a new prototype of English ethno-cultural tradition. The basic concept of this very tradition arose in the Anglo-Saxon Christian dominant with the infused Anglo-Norman subethnic values. The latter favoured greatly the inclusion of England to the west European Christian super-ethnic system. The culture of Chivalry that had become a dominant of the system had inherently French origin which also made for the depth of the French ethno-cultural substratum in English cultural tradition. It is well known that the basic motives of chivalrous culture were service, faithfulness and war. All this was for the sake of the Lord, God and Lady. War was an aim and ordinary end of knight’s life. A Knight enjoyed the battles being brave and brutal as a lion though in peace time he devoted his time to the service to a lady. The military system in England was organized thereby that not only knights but the population had to on one way or another participate in a war. Consequently, again the war motive was dominant.
John Sanders perceived in the Chivalrous culture Anglo-Saxon roots. According to his point of view the culture sprung up in the XI century naturally from ancient sets of values. Inside the developing feudal institutions were establishing relations that naturally continued already existing traditions. The being exploited institution of Knighthood was under great influence of religion and Church. The Unity of Christian world was consolidating exactly in this period in other words it was the process of forming west European super-ethnic system. One can feel the tendency toward the extension of super-ethnic room by means of crusades and missionary activities.
The legend about the King Arthur was firstly told in the poem “Brut” by Layamon. The kings himself as well as the knights from his suite were prototypical ideal models of behavior of the epoch becoming the symbols of Chivalrous England. The appearance of the Arthur is considered to be connected with Celtic myth-poetic tradition first of all due to the fact that he had a real historic prototype of Celtic origin. [24: 90-100] .Just as the invaders travelled all over the subjugated country and extended their territories as much as it was possible they also subjected to the examination the literature of their new compatriots. The Normans didn’t take much from Saxon culture mainly because they didn’t comprehend its spirit. It was Celtic culture that was the center of their attention as its spirit suited to their own perfectly. The king Author became Norman’s passion. At the moment of the invasion there were a considerable number of legends about Celtic heroes, although many of them were not necessarily connected with Arthur soon they gradually grouped around him [10: 90-95].
As it was mentioned above the basic values cementing the dominant ethno-cultural concept were service and faithfulness. Consequently the negative motive of violation of loyalty oath, treason swikedome became the main theme of many works of literature dating back to that time including Layamon’s “Brut” in the part where the events of King Arthur life were described.
2.2. The idea of chivalry in “Sir Gawain and Green Knight”
The world of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is governed by well-defined codes of behavior. The code of chivalry, in particular, shapes the values and actions of Sir Gawain and other characters in the poem.
The image of gallant and noble knights galloping on their mighty steeds to perilous battles has been a longtime icon in numerous fairytales and folklore. This idea of knighthood is especially portrayed and described in detail throughout Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Knights, more specifically, of the Round Table, are depicted as the heroic, noble, almost god-like protectors of Camelot. Ardent followers of Christ, they are perceived as infinitely powerful in times of combat, yet infinitely compassionate and honorable in times of peace. The Endless Knot, a symbolic emblem of knighthood, dictates “The fifth five that was used, as I find, by this knight was free-giving and friendliness first before all, and chastity and chivalry ever changeless and straight, and piety surpassing all point: these perfect five were hasped upon him harder than on any man else.” (38). Sir Gawain, though the weakest of the King Arthur’s Knights of the Round Table, proves himself as an ideal knight through fulfilling the standards of knighthood described in Sir Gawain and the green Knight.………………………………………………………………
Part of a knight’s duty was to defend and love the Church and to have complete trust in God. The Knights of the Round Table were all firm believers in Christ, taking part in “ …[a] feast [that] was unfailing full fifteen days” during the Christmas season, thus implying how religiously vigorous they were. Sir Gawain is highly religious, calling upon God’s grace and power to protect him in times of peril, even having “on the inner side of his shield [Mary’s] image depainted, that when he cast his eyes thither his courage never failed.” (39). Before entering the field to the Green Chapel, Sir Gawain also proved his faith in God by entrusting that He would protect him when the Green Knight repays the blow, praying that “By God on high I will neither grieve nor groan. With God’s will I comply.
Sir Gawain’s character also proves that he is morally strict in keeping his honorable reputation as a Knight of the Round Table. For example, when Bertilak’s beautiful wife tempts Sir Gawain, although he knew he would die in a few days time, he never fell into her manipulative seduction scheme. No matter how persistent “the lady demeaned her as one that loved him much”, Sir Gawain always “fenced with her featly, ever flawless in manner.”(58). This sends a powerful message to the reader about Sir Gawain’s morality as a person, being able to resist the very temptation that had brought so many other great men to their knees.
The Knights of the Round Table were also expected to be the gallant, zealous defenders of Camelot. Sir Gawain’s perseverance and bravery definitely resembles that of an ideal knight. During his long journey, Sir Gawain “found a foe before him, save at few for a wonder; and so foul were they and fell that fight he must needs” and thus conquering each and every one of the beasts that challenges him (41). The knight was also stunningly brave when he went to receive his repayment from the Green Knight. Even though his guide warned him of his nonexistent chances of surviving, Sir Gawain nevertheless presses onwards, replying that “…if I here departed fain in fear now to flee, in the fashion thou speakest, I should a knight coward be, I could not be excused. Noy, I’ll fare to the Chapel, whatever chance may befall…” (85). Sir Gawain’s unwavering bravery further justifies his rightful title as an ideal knight.……………………………………………………...
The use of colors reflects his noble position as the protector of Camelot and King Arthur, as Sir Gawain is equipped with armor in the regal color of red, which symbolizes royalty. The ideal knight was also expected to serve the royal family, and to protect the king in times of need, as Sir Gawain had put it, “I find it unfitting…you yourself be desirous to accept it in person, while many bold men abRout you on bench are seated.”(29). One could not help but notice Sir Gawain’s show of selflessness when he offers to sacrifice his life for King Arthur’s even when none of the other elite knights would dare to do so. The knight’s “free-giving” nature could also be observed when Bertilak’s offers him a beautiful ring that “was worth wealth beyond measure.” (75). Sir Gawain promptly refuses the offer, arguing that he had nothing to offer in return. When he promises to hide the green girdle that the lady presses upon him, it was a mistake that was not committed for his own interests, but rather one to protect another’s reputation. This selflessness reflects Sir Gawain’s loyalty to his duty as a knight to protect those who are less superior and to serve the weak.………………………………………
Through living up to the expected virtues of knighthood such as chastity, selflessness, bravery, and piety, Sir Gawain proves himself time and time again his worthiness to be recognized as the ideal knight. Each time the knight faces a different challenge or trial, his consequent decisions reveal a little about his character. It is nearly impossible to compare the virtues and criterion of the ideal knight to Sir Gawain’s actions and not recognize the stunning. As Sir Gawain and the Green Knight closes to an end, the reader is left with the impression that Sir Gawain had indeed fulfilled his duties as the ideal knight. [27]
2.2.2 The concept of Courtly love in the Middle English epoch
As it was mentioned above in ancient epic romances the idea of love and service to a lady were shadowed and did not play any important role. Contrary to this epoch in medieval literature a woman became a center of attention; all heroic deeds were done only for the sake of winning her heart. The poets in their turn were inspired by entirely new motives i.e the idea of courtly love [4:104-105].
The idea of courtesy was tightly connected with the knight culture. The phrase “courtly love” refers to a set of ideas about love that greatly influenced the literature and culture of the Middle Ages. In the 11th century, poets throughout Europe promoted the notions that true love only exists outside of marriage; that true love may be idealized and spiritual, and may exist without ever being married; and that a man becomes the servant of the lady he loves. This idea is extended to that love is a torment or a disease, and when a man is in love he cannot sleep or eat; therefore, he undergoes physical changes and sometimes to the point of becoming unrecognizable. Although very few people's lives resembled the courtly love ideal, these themes and motifs were extremely popular and widespread in Medieval and Renaissance literature and culture. They were particularly popular in the literature and culture that were part of royal and noble courts.
In theory "courtly love" has been seen as the other side of the coin of antifeminism. Scholars have used the term to designate a set of literary conventions that supposedly idealizes women and makes them into objects of worship. The lady is wooed, usually at a distance, by a knight who fights in her honor, calls himself her "servant," and suffers insomnia, anorexia, pallor, chills and fever, and other symptoms that, he insists, will be his death if he does not obtain her "mercy." (Ex. St. George, the Redcross Knight, is Una's protector, her knight. Sir Philip Sidney's lyrics is based on courtly love.) The relationship between the knight and the lady is an inversion of the relationship between lord and vassal under feudalism. Because aristocratic women were married off for rank and property, and husbands enjoyed total authority over their wives, it has been argued that courtly love was incompatible with marriage and thus necessarily clandestine, although in Chaucer's "Knight's Tale" and "Franklin's Tale" courtly suitors woo and marry their ladies. Whether courtly love had any bearing on actual social custom in the Middle Ages is a vexed question, but one may safely assume that the literature reflects a new deference toward "ladies" that still governs much of our social behavior [27:13-16].
2.2.3. The idea of piety and development of a religious dominant
Parallel to the chivalrous dominant another ethno-cultural majorant that considerably influenced the literature was developing. Christianity with its ideas about the perishable nature of earthly blessings and riches offering an eternal bliss in heaven displaced the accent from the materialized symbols of the military epoch to the spirituality. It is noteworthy that through the suffering and redemption even a rejected looser could find a consolation in Christian idea. In whole, relations between a human and community moved on to a new footing. By putting in the forefront individual salvation, freedom of will Christianity raised the value of human’s personality put in direct relation with God. Christianity did change the ethno-cultural dominant of the Anglo-Saxon giving them motivation for reappraisal of already established models of behavior in line with the new imperatives. All this prepared the ground for the forming of young and unique Anglo-Saxon ethnic system [3: 208].
With Christianization England became a significant part of the western Christian super-ethnic system. It promoted literacy, brought a substantial body of Latin literature to England, and inspired Anglo-Saxon poets to write on Christian subjects. The birth of vernacular poetry is associated with the name of Caedmon. His famous Hymn to God the creator is an illustration of how the content and form of old Germanic heroic layof praise was transferred to religious poetry.
As far as medieval literature is concerned the relation between God and human beings is one of the main points. The scene of people’s praying or pleading appears every now and then, no matter to the God or even to some other people who own power. Traditionally, whenever people meet obstacles or need helps, they turn to God and reverentially pray for fulfillment of their wishes with their piety and respect in return. “Knight’s tale” is not an exception. Before the public fight in the arena, Palamon and Arcita go praying in the shrines of Venus and Mars respectively and both swear to be the most pious followers if they succeed, one in winning Emily and the other in having the battle’s victory. Beside these two warriors’ praying, Emily, treated as the prize in the battle, also shows up in the temple of Diana, the goddess of Chastity, hoping for keeping her virginity and chastity earlier the day of fight. These three’s very alike action of praying in the shrines clearly reveals people’s tendency of praying to gods while confronting challenges. In other words, people see their religions as one way to seek for helps or to get strength [26:1-2].
There was a good deal of religious writing—works like the Ormulum a translation of some of the Gospels read at Mass, made by the Bo&V 1 Orm about 1 zoo. There is the Ancrene Riwle— advice given by a priest to three religious ladies living not in a convent but in a little house near a church. This is rather charming, and it seems that, for a time in the literature of England, there is an awareness of woman as woman— a creature to be treated courteously and delicately, in gentle language. There is a connection here with the devotion to the Blessed Virgin, Mother of Christ, a cult which the Normans brought over, practiced by them in prayers and homage even when it was forbidden by Rome. Chivalry, which demanded a devotion to womankind almost amounting to worship, is another myth of old Europe, killed finally by Cervantes in the satire Don Quixote, written in Shakespeare's time. There is a curious book written about 1300—a translation from the French spoken in England —by Robert Mannyng, called Handlyng Synne, setting out in verse stories the various paths of sin—satirical, amusing, as well as edifying. There is the Pricke of Conscience, probably written by Richard Rolle about which deals with the pains of hell in horrifying detail—the damned souls, tortured by thirst, finding that fire will not quench it, suck instead the heads of poisonous snakes. Demons yell, strike with red-hot hammers, while their victims shed tears of fire, nauseated by unspeakable filth and smells of an indescribable foulness [14:153].
CONCLUSION
In this work we endeavored to consider a huge layer of English literature i.e English medieval literature. Having analyzed this complex epoch we have come to the following conclusions.
The process of the formation of new ethno-cultural dominants proved to be a very long and gradual process the slight traces of which can be seen at the early stages of the English literature development. Many centuries elapsed until they become the cementing elements of the culture affecting various aspects of life of culture bearers.
The chivalrous culture was one of the main ethno-cultural dominants. The phenomenon of Knighthood proved the appearance of several new directions in West-European and English literature in particular –there merged Courtly love literature.
The literary culture of the Middle Ages was far more international than national and was divided more by lines of class and audience than by language. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning. After the eleventh century, French became the dominant language of secular European literary culture. Edward, the Prince of Wales, who took the king of France prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, had culturally more in common with his royal captive than with the common people of England. And the legendary King Arthur was an international figure. Stories about him and his knights originated in Celtic poems and tales and were adapted and greatly expanded in Latin chronicles and French romances even before Arthur became an English hero. Indeed, this period was an important time for literature in Britain. The works of the Middle English period helped to distract people from their everyday fears; today they also provide us with doorways through which we can see what everyday early English life was like.
By the mid 15th century, as this period of British history was coming to a close, Gutenberg finished development of his printing press, thereby giving lower and middle class people their first opportunity to be able to afford to purchase books and other literary works; and expanded literacy in Britain, leading to the emergence of the Renaissance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Аракин, В. Д. История английского языка [Текст] / В.Д. Аракин. – М.: Высшая школа,1985. – 190 с.
2. Бруннер, К Иcтория английского языка [Текст] / К.Брунер: Пер. с нем./ Под. ред.Б. А. Ильиша. – М.: Едиториал УРРС,2008. – 720 с.
3. Гуревич, А. Я. Категории средневековой культуры [Текст] / А.Я.Гуревич. – М: Высшая школа,1984. – 350 с.
4. Жюссеран, Ж. История английского языка в его литературе [Текст]/ Ж. Жюссеран. – Пер.с фр М:Высшая школа,2009. – 404 с.
5. Иванова, И. П. История английского языка [Текст] / И. П. Иванова, Л. П. Чахоян, Т.М. Беляева. – СПб.: Лань, 2001. – 319 с.
6. Ильиш, Б. А.История английского языка [Текст] / Б.А. Ильиш. –Просвещение, 1972. –351 с.
7. Толкиен, Дж. Р. Р. Чудовища и критики [Текст] / Дж. Р.Р. Толкиен. – М.: АСТ: АСТ Москва: Хранитель,2008. –413 с.
8. Смирницкий, А. И. Древнеанглийский язык [Текст] / А.И.Смирницкий. – М. ,1955. –318 с.
9. Смирницкий, А. И. Хрестоматия по истории английского языка [Текст] / А.И.Смирницкий. – Мб1953.-616 с.
10. Шапошникова, И. В. Этнолингвистический анализ текста в курсе английского языка [Текст] / И.В. Шапошникова. – Новосибирск, 2003. – 253 с.
11. Ярцева, В. Н. Развитие национального литературного английского языка [Текст] / В. Н.Ярцева. – М: Высшая школа,1969. – 284 с.
12. Ярцева, В. Н. История английского литературного языка IX –XV века [Текст] / В. Н. Ярцева. – М.: Наука, 1985. – 315 с.
13. Amodio, M. Tradition, Performance and poetics in the early Middle English period [Text] / M. Amodio. – Poetica, 2000. – 214 p.
14. Baugh. A. C, Cable Th. History of the English language [Text]/ A. C. Baugh, Th. Cable. – London, 1978. – 398 p.
15. Benson, L. The riverside Chaucer, 3rd edition [Text] / L. Benson. – Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.-127 p.
16. Crystal, D. The encyclopedia of English language [Text] / D. Crystal. –Cambridge: University Press, 1995. –489 p.
17. Davis, N. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight [Text] /N. Davis. - Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. – 32 p.
18. Emerson O. F. the history of the English language [Text] / O. F. Emerson. –NY: Macmillan, 1996. – 547 p.
19. Fowler, H. W. The kings English [Text] / H. W. Fowler. – London Oxford, 1927. – 370 p.
20. Morton, A. L. A people’s history of England. [Text] / L. A Morton. -London, 1986. – 53 p.
21. Rastorgueva, T. A. A history of English [Text] / T. A. Rastorgueva. – M., 2007. – 349 p.
22. Slopova, Е. Key concepts in the Middle English literature [Internet resource] / E. Slopova. –http//www.plau.com
23. Shaposhnikova I. V. A History of the English language [Text] / I. V. Shaposhnikova. – Irkutsk, 1997 –207 p.
24. Schlauch, M. English Medieval Literature and its social foundations, [Text] / M. Schlauch. – Warzawa PWN, 1967–238 p.
25. Wallace, D. The Cambridge history of Medieval English Literature [Text] / D. Wallace. – Cambridge University Pres, 1999. –478 p.
Электронные ресурсы
26. English literature site http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/
27. Critical essays on medieval writings https://netfiles.uiuc. edu/cdwright/www/mideng.html
The fifteenth century is sometimes known as the Imitative Period because so much of the poetry then written was written in emulation of Chaucer. It is also spoken of as a Transition Period, because it covers a large part of the interval between the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare period has been unjustly neglected. Hawes are not negligible, though admittedly overshadowed by some of their great predecessors, and at the end of the century we have the prose of Malory and Caxton. In the north the Scottish Chaucerians, particularly Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, and Lindsay, produced significant work. These authors carry on the tradition of English as a literary medium into the Renaissance. Thus, Middle English literature follows and throws interesting light on the fortunes of the English language [14: 151-152].
PART 2. CONCEPTUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE
2.1. Knighthood and Chivalry as a culturally dominant element in the Middle English literature
After the Norman Conquest when invaders created a new sub-ethnic system in the ethnic system of the subjugated folk and their contacts with English people passed on from the interethnic to the intra-ethnic level, it became obvious that the categorization of a newly acquired interethnic contact’s experience gave birth to a new prototype of English ethno-cultural tradition. The basic concept of this very tradition arose in the Anglo-Saxon Christian dominant with the infused Anglo-Norman subethnic values. The latter favoured greatly the inclusion of England to the west European Christian super-ethnic system. The culture of Chivalry that had become a dominant of the system had inherently French origin which also made for the depth of the French ethno-cultural substratum in English cultural tradition. It is well known that the basic motives of chivalrous culture were service, faithfulness and war. All this was for the sake of the Lord, God and Lady. War was an aim and ordinary end of knight’s life. A Knight enjoyed the battles being brave and brutal as a lion though in peace time he devoted his time to the service to a lady. The military system in England was organized thereby that not only knights but the population had to on one way or another participate in a war. Consequently, again the war motive was dominant.
John Sanders perceived in the Chivalrous culture Anglo-Saxon roots. According to his point of view the culture sprung up in the XI century naturally from ancient sets of values. Inside the developing feudal institutions were establishing relations that naturally continued already existing traditions. The being exploited institution of Knighthood was under great influence of religion and Church. The Unity of Christian world was consolidating exactly in this period in other words it was the process of forming west European super-ethnic system. One can feel the tendency toward the extension of super-ethnic room by means of crusades and missionary activities.
The legend about the King Arthur was firstly told in the poem “Brut” by Layamon. The kings himself as well as the knights from his suite were prototypical ideal models of behavior of the epoch becoming the symbols of Chivalrous England. The appearance of the Arthur is considered to be connected with Celtic myth-poetic tradition first of all due to the fact that he had a real historic prototype of Celtic origin. [24: 90-100] .Just as the invaders travelled all over the subjugated country and extended their territories as much as it was possible they also subjected to the examination the literature of their new compatriots. The Normans didn’t take much from Saxon culture mainly because they didn’t comprehend its spirit. It was Celtic culture that was the center of their attention as its spirit suited to their own perfectly. The king Author became Norman’s passion. At the moment of the invasion there were a considerable number of legends about Celtic heroes, although many of them were not necessarily connected with Arthur soon they gradually grouped around him [10: 90-95].
As it was mentioned above the basic values cementing the dominant ethno-cultural concept were service and faithfulness. Consequently the negative motive of violation of loyalty oath, treason swikedome became the main theme of many works of literature dating back to that time including Layamon’s “Brut” in the part where the events of King Arthur life were described.
2.2. The idea of chivalry in “Sir Gawain and Green Knight”
The world of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is governed by well-defined codes of behavior. The code of chivalry, in particular, shapes the values and actions of Sir Gawain and other characters in the poem.
The image of gallant and noble knights galloping on their mighty steeds to perilous battles has been a longtime icon in numerous fairytales and folklore. This idea of knighthood is especially portrayed and described in detail throughout Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Knights, more specifically, of the Round Table, are depicted as the heroic, noble, almost god-like protectors of Camelot. Ardent followers of Christ, they are perceived as infinitely powerful in times of combat, yet infinitely compassionate and honorable in times of peace. The Endless Knot, a symbolic emblem of knighthood, dictates “The fifth five that was used, as I find, by this knight was free-giving and friendliness first before all, and chastity and chivalry ever changeless and straight, and piety surpassing all point: these perfect five were hasped upon him harder than on any man else.” (38). Sir Gawain, though the weakest of the King Arthur’s Knights of the Round Table, proves himself as an ideal knight through fulfilling the standards of knighthood described in Sir Gawain and the green Knight.………………………………………………………………
Part of a knight’s duty was to defend and love the Church and to have complete trust in God. The Knights of the Round Table were all firm believers in Christ, taking part in “ …[a] feast [that] was unfailing full fifteen days” during the Christmas season, thus implying how religiously vigorous they were. Sir Gawain is highly religious, calling upon God’s grace and power to protect him in times of peril, even having “on the inner side of his shield [Mary’s] image depainted, that when he cast his eyes thither his courage never failed.” (39). Before entering the field to the Green Chapel, Sir Gawain also proved his faith in God by entrusting that He would protect him when the Green Knight repays the blow, praying that “By God on high I will neither grieve nor groan. With God’s will I comply.
Sir Gawain’s character also proves that he is morally strict in keeping his honorable reputation as a Knight of the Round Table. For example, when Bertilak’s beautiful wife tempts Sir Gawain, although he knew he would die in a few days time, he never fell into her manipulative seduction scheme. No matter how persistent “the lady demeaned her as one that loved him much”, Sir Gawain always “fenced with her featly, ever flawless in manner.”(58). This sends a powerful message to the reader about Sir Gawain’s morality as a person, being able to resist the very temptation that had brought so many other great men to their knees.
The Knights of the Round Table were also expected to be the gallant, zealous defenders of Camelot. Sir Gawain’s perseverance and bravery definitely resembles that of an ideal knight. During his long journey, Sir Gawain “found a foe before him, save at few for a wonder; and so foul were they and fell that fight he must needs” and thus conquering each and every one of the beasts that challenges him (41). The knight was also stunningly brave when he went to receive his repayment from the Green Knight. Even though his guide warned him of his nonexistent chances of surviving, Sir Gawain nevertheless presses onwards, replying that “…if I here departed fain in fear now to flee, in the fashion thou speakest, I should a knight coward be, I could not be excused. Noy, I’ll fare to the Chapel, whatever chance may befall…” (85). Sir Gawain’s unwavering bravery further justifies his rightful title as an ideal knight.……………………………………………………...
The use of colors reflects his noble position as the protector of Camelot and King Arthur, as Sir Gawain is equipped with armor in the regal color of red, which symbolizes royalty. The ideal knight was also expected to serve the royal family, and to protect the king in times of need, as Sir Gawain had put it, “I find it unfitting…you yourself be desirous to accept it in person, while many bold men abRout you on bench are seated.”(29). One could not help but notice Sir Gawain’s show of selflessness when he offers to sacrifice his life for King Arthur’s even when none of the other elite knights would dare to do so. The knight’s “free-giving” nature could also be observed when Bertilak’s offers him a beautiful ring that “was worth wealth beyond measure.” (75). Sir Gawain promptly refuses the offer, arguing that he had nothing to offer in return. When he promises to hide the green girdle that the lady presses upon him, it was a mistake that was not committed for his own interests, but rather one to protect another’s reputation. This selflessness reflects Sir Gawain’s loyalty to his duty as a knight to protect those who are less superior and to serve the weak.………………………………………
Through living up to the expected virtues of knighthood such as chastity, selflessness, bravery, and piety, Sir Gawain proves himself time and time again his worthiness to be recognized as the ideal knight. Each time the knight faces a different challenge or trial, his consequent decisions reveal a little about his character. It is nearly impossible to compare the virtues and criterion of the ideal knight to Sir Gawain’s actions and not recognize the stunning. As Sir Gawain and the Green Knight closes to an end, the reader is left with the impression that Sir Gawain had indeed fulfilled his duties as the ideal knight. [27]
2.2.2 The concept of Courtly love in the Middle English epoch
As it was mentioned above in ancient epic romances the idea of love and service to a lady were shadowed and did not play any important role. Contrary to this epoch in medieval literature a woman became a center of attention; all heroic deeds were done only for the sake of winning her heart. The poets in their turn were inspired by entirely new motives i.e the idea of courtly love [4:104-105].
The idea of courtesy was tightly connected with the knight culture. The phrase “courtly love” refers to a set of ideas about love that greatly influenced the literature and culture of the Middle Ages. In the 11th century, poets throughout Europe promoted the notions that true love only exists outside of marriage; that true love may be idealized and spiritual, and may exist without ever being married; and that a man becomes the servant of the lady he loves. This idea is extended to that love is a torment or a disease, and when a man is in love he cannot sleep or eat; therefore, he undergoes physical changes and sometimes to the point of becoming unrecognizable. Although very few people's lives resembled the courtly love ideal, these themes and motifs were extremely popular and widespread in Medieval and Renaissance literature and culture. They were particularly popular in the literature and culture that were part of royal and noble courts.
In theory "courtly love" has been seen as the other side of the coin of antifeminism. Scholars have used the term to designate a set of literary conventions that supposedly idealizes women and makes them into objects of worship. The lady is wooed, usually at a distance, by a knight who fights in her honor, calls himself her "servant," and suffers insomnia, anorexia, pallor, chills and fever, and other symptoms that, he insists, will be his death if he does not obtain her "mercy." (Ex. St. George, the Redcross Knight, is Una's protector, her knight. Sir Philip Sidney's lyrics is based on courtly love.) The relationship between the knight and the lady is an inversion of the relationship between lord and vassal under feudalism. Because aristocratic women were married off for rank and property, and husbands enjoyed total authority over their wives, it has been argued that courtly love was incompatible with marriage and thus necessarily clandestine, although in Chaucer's "Knight's Tale" and "Franklin's Tale" courtly suitors woo and marry their ladies. Whether courtly love had any bearing on actual social custom in the Middle Ages is a vexed question, but one may safely assume that the literature reflects a new deference toward "ladies" that still governs much of our social behavior [27:13-16].
2.2.3. The idea of piety and development of a religious dominant
Parallel to the chivalrous dominant another ethno-cultural majorant that considerably influenced the literature was developing. Christianity with its ideas about the perishable nature of earthly blessings and riches offering an eternal bliss in heaven displaced the accent from the materialized symbols of the military epoch to the spirituality. It is noteworthy that through the suffering and redemption even a rejected looser could find a consolation in Christian idea. In whole, relations between a human and community moved on to a new footing. By putting in the forefront individual salvation, freedom of will Christianity raised the value of human’s personality put in direct relation with God. Christianity did change the ethno-cultural dominant of the Anglo-Saxon giving them motivation for reappraisal of already established models of behavior in line with the new imperatives. All this prepared the ground for the forming of young and unique Anglo-Saxon ethnic system [3: 208].
With Christianization England became a significant part of the western Christian super-ethnic system. It promoted literacy, brought a substantial body of Latin literature to England, and inspired Anglo-Saxon poets to write on Christian subjects. The birth of vernacular poetry is associated with the name of Caedmon. His famous Hymn to God the creator is an illustration of how the content and form of old Germanic heroic layof praise was transferred to religious poetry.
As far as medieval literature is concerned the relation between God and human beings is one of the main points. The scene of people’s praying or pleading appears every now and then, no matter to the God or even to some other people who own power. Traditionally, whenever people meet obstacles or need helps, they turn to God and reverentially pray for fulfillment of their wishes with their piety and respect in return. “Knight’s tale” is not an exception. Before the public fight in the arena, Palamon and Arcita go praying in the shrines of Venus and Mars respectively and both swear to be the most pious followers if they succeed, one in winning Emily and the other in having the battle’s victory. Beside these two warriors’ praying, Emily, treated as the prize in the battle, also shows up in the temple of Diana, the goddess of Chastity, hoping for keeping her virginity and chastity earlier the day of fight. These three’s very alike action of praying in the shrines clearly reveals people’s tendency of praying to gods while confronting challenges. In other words, people see their religions as one way to seek for helps or to get strength [26:1-2].
There was a good deal of religious writing—works like the Ormulum a translation of some of the Gospels read at Mass, made by the Bo&V 1 Orm about 1 zoo. There is the Ancrene Riwle— advice given by a priest to three religious ladies living not in a convent but in a little house near a church. This is rather charming, and it seems that, for a time in the literature of England, there is an awareness of woman as woman— a creature to be treated courteously and delicately, in gentle language. There is a connection here with the devotion to the Blessed Virgin, Mother of Christ, a cult which the Normans brought over, practiced by them in prayers and homage even when it was forbidden by Rome. Chivalry, which demanded a devotion to womankind almost amounting to worship, is another myth of old Europe, killed finally by Cervantes in the satire Don Quixote, written in Shakespeare's time. There is a curious book written about 1300—a translation from the French spoken in England —by Robert Mannyng, called Handlyng Synne, setting out in verse stories the various paths of sin—satirical, amusing, as well as edifying. There is the Pricke of Conscience, probably written by Richard Rolle about which deals with the pains of hell in horrifying detail—the damned souls, tortured by thirst, finding that fire will not quench it, suck instead the heads of poisonous snakes. Demons yell, strike with red-hot hammers, while their victims shed tears of fire, nauseated by unspeakable filth and smells of an indescribable foulness [14:153].
CONCLUSION
In this work we endeavored to consider a huge layer of English literature i.e English medieval literature. Having analyzed this complex epoch we have come to the following conclusions.
The process of the formation of new ethno-cultural dominants proved to be a very long and gradual process the slight traces of which can be seen at the early stages of the English literature development. Many centuries elapsed until they become the cementing elements of the culture affecting various aspects of life of culture bearers.
The chivalrous culture was one of the main ethno-cultural dominants. The phenomenon of Knighthood proved the appearance of several new directions in West-European and English literature in particular –there merged Courtly love literature.
The literary culture of the Middle Ages was far more international than national and was divided more by lines of class and audience than by language. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning. After the eleventh century, French became the dominant language of secular European literary culture. Edward, the Prince of Wales, who took the king of France prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, had culturally more in common with his royal captive than with the common people of England. And the legendary King Arthur was an international figure. Stories about him and his knights originated in Celtic poems and tales and were adapted and greatly expanded in Latin chronicles and French romances even before Arthur became an English hero. Indeed, this period was an important time for literature in Britain. The works of the Middle English period helped to distract people from their everyday fears; today they also provide us with doorways through which we can see what everyday early English life was like.
By the mid 15th century, as this period of British history was coming to a close, Gutenberg finished development of his printing press, thereby giving lower and middle class people their first opportunity to be able to afford to purchase books and other literary works; and expanded literacy in Britain, leading to the emergence of the Renaissance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Аракин, В. Д. История английского языка [Текст] / В.Д. Аракин. – М.: Высшая школа,1985. – 190 с.
2. Бруннер, К Иcтория английского языка [Текст] / К.Брунер: Пер. с нем./ Под. ред.Б. А. Ильиша. – М.: Едиториал УРРС,2008. – 720 с.
3. Гуревич, А. Я. Категории средневековой культуры [Текст] / А.Я.Гуревич. – М: Высшая школа,1984. – 350 с.
4. Жюссеран, Ж. История английского языка в его литературе [Текст]/ Ж. Жюссеран. – Пер.с фр М:Высшая школа,2009. – 404 с.
5. Иванова, И. П. История английского языка [Текст] / И. П. Иванова, Л. П. Чахоян, Т.М. Беляева. – СПб.: Лань, 2001. – 319 с.
6. Ильиш, Б. А.История английского языка [Текст] / Б.А. Ильиш. –Просвещение, 1972. –351 с.
7. Толкиен, Дж. Р. Р. Чудовища и критики [Текст] / Дж. Р.Р. Толкиен. – М.: АСТ: АСТ Москва: Хранитель,2008. –413 с.
8. Смирницкий, А. И. Древнеанглийский язык [Текст] / А.И.Смирницкий. – М. ,1955. –318 с.
9. Смирницкий, А. И. Хрестоматия по истории английского языка [Текст] / А.И.Смирницкий. – Мб1953.-616 с.
10. Шапошникова, И. В. Этнолингвистический анализ текста в курсе английского языка [Текст] / И.В. Шапошникова. – Новосибирск, 2003. – 253 с.
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Электронные ресурсы
26. English literature site http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/
27. Critical essays on medieval writings https://netfiles.uiuc. edu/cdwright/www/mideng.html
