Death Of Salesman Essay, Research Paper

Arthur Miller is one of the most renowned and important American playwrights to

ever live. His works include, among others, The Crucible and A View from the

Bridge. The plays he has written have been criticized for many things, but have

been praised for much more, including his magical development of the characters

and how his plays provide ?good theater?. In his plays, Miller rarely says

anything about his home life, but there are at least some autobiographical

?hints? in his plays. Arthur Miller is most noted for his continuing efforts

to devise suitable new ways to express new and different themes. His play Death

of a Salesman, a modern tragedy, follows along these lines. The themes in this

play are described and unfurled mostly through Willy Loman?s, the main

character in the play, thoughts and experiences. The story takes place mainly in

Brooklyn, New York, and it also has some ?flashback? scenes occurring in a

hotel room in Boston. Willy lives with his wife Linda and their two sons, Biff

and Happy in a small house, crowded and boxed in by large apartment buildings.

The three most important parts of Death of a Salesman are the characters and how

they develop throughout the play; the conflicts, with the most important ones

revolving around Willy; and the masterful use of symbolism and other literary

techniques which lead into the themes that Miller is trying to reveal. Arthur

Miller was born in Manhattan on October 17, 1915 to Isidore and Augusta Barnett

Miller. His father was a ladies coat manufacturer. Arthur Miller went to grammar

school in Harlem but then moved to Brooklyn because of his father?s losses in

the depression. In Brooklyn he went to James Madison and Abraham Lincoln High

Schools and was an average student there, but did not get accepted to college.

After high school, he worked for 2 ? years at an auto supply warehouse where he

saved $13 of his $15 a week paycheck. He began to read such classics as

Dostoevski and his growing knowledge led him to the University of Michigan.

While at the University of Michigan, Miller worked many jobs such as a mouse

tender at the University laboratory and as a night editor at the newspaper

Michigan Daily. He began to write plays at college and won 2 of the $500 Hopwood

Playwriting Awards. One of the two awarded plays No Villain (1936) won the

Theater?s Guild Award for 1938 and the prize of $1250 encouraged him to become

engaged with Mary Grace Slattery, whom he married in 1940. Miller briefly worked

with the Federal Theater Project and in 1944 he traveled to Army Camps across

Europe to gather material for a play he was doing. His first Broadway play, The

Man Who Had All the Luck, opened in 1944. Since then he has written 13 award

winning plays and more than 23 different noted books. He had two children with

Mary Grace Slattery, Jane and Robert, but divorced her and in 1956 married

Marilyn Monroe. He then divorced her later that decade, and, in 1962, married

Ingeborg Morath and had one child with her, named Rebecca. He now lives on 400

acres of land in Connecticut and spends his time gardening, mowing, planting

evergreens, and working as a carpenter. He still writes each day for four to six

hours. His father always told him to read. He once said, ?Until the age of

seventeen, I can safely say that I never read a book weightier than ?Tom Swift

and the Rover Boys?, but my father brought me into literature with

Dickens?(Nelson, Pg. 59). His father?s good-natured joking was used to

invent the character of Joe Keller?s genial side. After the Fall (1947) is a

play written by Miller where he sneaks in some small autobiographical notes. The

character traits exhibited by the main woman in the play indicate his mother?s

early encouragement to his literary promise. The Depression still troubles him

today, especially for the hard times that he went through as a child. In an

interview, he once said, It seems easy to tell how it was to live in those

years, but I have made several attempts to tell it and when I do try I know I

cannot quite touch that mysterious underwater, vile thing. (Welland, Pg. 38) His

parents could not afford college for him, so the Depression affected his life in

many ways. Miller hated the McCarthy Witch-hunt trials of the early 1950?s,

and once was called before that tribunal but was acquitted of all charges. His

play, The Crucible, is a very powerful allegory to the McCarthy trials. He has

used the American industry many times in his works and criticizes such social

aspects of American society as it?s bad moral values and people who put too

much importance on material wealth. Miller especially admired Henrik Ibsen, the

great Norwegian master of the ?well-made?, or tightly constructed, ordered

play. Miller was familiar with the works of Eugene O?Neill, Clifford Odets,

and Thornton Wilder as well as that of such European Experimentalists as

Bertholdt Brecht. All My Sons, Miller?s first drama to receive critical

acclaim seemed to largely follow Ibsen?s style and form, the theme and even

plot are based on some of Ibsen?s greatest works. Miller?s plays received a

broad audience and made the dialogue as plain as possible for the ?common

man? to understand. One critic, Euphemia Wyatt, once said, ?I think the

closest parallel to Death of a Salesman is Ibsen?s The Wild Duck, where every

action in the present works toward revelation of the past? (Welland, Pg. 38).

Miller believed that an ordinary person is able to serve well as a tragic hero

if he gives up everything in the pursuit of something he wants intensely.

Miller?s tragic heroes are usually confused. For example, Willy is confused

about success and happiness. His ?solution? to these problems of committing

suicide is a highly questionable one, at the least. But, Willy is planning on

committing suicide for the betterment of his family, which is an admirable

objective. He is willing to sacrifice everything he has, specifically his life,

for his convictions, which makes him, with using Miller?s definition, the

epitome of a perfect tragic hero. Miller used very creative and original formats

in almost all of his works. For example, he has Willy holding two conversations

at the same time, which shows the problems going on inside of his head. When

Willy is reminded of the Boston hotel room incident, he relives the event and

feels all the pain like it had just happened. ?His language is sometimes

considered banal and lacking emotional power? (Moss, 125). Some critics

believe that Miller has been too negative towards American society by showing

mostly only the worst of what people can do. Also, he has been criticized by

saying that he only shows the inhumane, mechanical workings of a business, never

the loyalty that a company shows to its hardest workers. Some critics say his

?common man? heroes are ?little? and in the worst case, just common

people. It has also been said that his heroes are not genuinely human enough to

qualify as tragic figures at all. He has also been criticized for using

untraditional techniques like the Act One ?Overture? in The Crucible and the

?Requiem? in Death of a Salesman. Miller always tries to find new forms of

style to explore new and different themes. Among these themes Miller takes into

effect the vital contemporary issues of his time. Even those who disagree with

his literary, political, or social views say that he does care about society and

tries to tie in morals with his works. Many also say his plays provide ?good

theater?, that his stories effect them emotionally, as well as mentally, and

that they ?stir the heart?. A critic who, while working for The New York

Times, once called Death of a Salesman ?one of the finest dramas in the whole

range of the American theater? (Corrigan, Pg. 94) and John Gassner saw it as

?one of the triumphs of American stage? (MacNicholas, Pg. 106). So, it can

be stated that Miller?s works command attention. Death of a Salesman won the

Pulitzer Prize, the Drama Critic?s Circle Award and many others when it opened

in 1949. Symbolism, foreshadowing and conflict are 3 of the many things that

Miller does best. All of these literary techniques have added a tremendous

amount to Death of a Salesman and many others of his works. The play begins when

Willy Loman, a salesman over 60, enters his house unexpectedly, and tells his

worried wife, Linda, that, on his way to appointments in New England, he kept

losing control of his car. She urges him to ask Howard Wagner, Willy?s young

boss, for easier work in town so he will not have to drive as far anymore,

?Willy, dear. Talk to them again. There?s no reason why you can?t work in

New York? (Miller, Act 1, Scene 1). She also happily states that their two

grown sons, Biff and Happy, are upstairs and sharing their old room. Willy is

concerned that Biff, 34 years old, just quit another job out west. The entire

conflict between Biff and Willy can be proven as starting at their meeting in

Boston. When Biff saw his father, the man he idolized, with another woman,

Biff’s faith in him was shattered. To Biff, Willy was a hero, but after this

scene, he denounces him as a fraud. When Biff gets home, he burns his University

of Virginia shoes, which represented all of Biff’s hopes and dreams. Biff no

longer has feelings for Willy as Linda says, "Biff, dear, if you don’t have

any feeling for him, then you can’t have any feeling for me"(Act 1, Scene

9). Linda believes that, since she loves Willy, Biff cannot come and just see

her because it would hurt Willy too much. Biff had believed in his father as

being a great man, and he realizes that he was wrong. When Linda asks Biff what

is wrong between him and his father, Biff recoils and says that it is not his

fault. Biff does not want to tell Linda that the whole problem is because of

Willy’s betrayal of her, so he just keeps it to himself and becomes the object

of her anger. Willy’s problem with society is that modern business is

impersonal. Even though "business is business"(Act 2, Scene 2), Willy

should have been treated like a human being, not just a faceless employee.

Howard, the owner of the business that Willy works for, believes that if an

employee does not bring in profits, than that they are expendable. He takes no

interest whatsoever in Willy’s past selling records, his association with his

father, or with pledges made years ago. Howard’s only concern is with the

efficient operation of his firm, and he represents the cold, practical

impersonality of modern business. Charley tries to tell Willy about this,

"Willy, when’re you gonna realize that them things don’t mean anything? You

named him Howard, but you can’t sell that. The only thing you got in this world

is what you can sell. And the funny thing is that you’re a salesman, and you

don’t know that"(Act 2, Scene 6). It was hard for Willy to hang onto his

personal dignity and to live with himself as being such a poor supplier of his

family’s needs. He was trapped in a situation and saw himself as a failure.

Society forgot Willy Loman existed and did not help him when he needed it, and

his mental state made it impossible for him to help himself. Willy believed that

he had to sell himself more than he had to sell his products. His whole outlook

on life was wrong; he believed in attributes that a good salesman would be

attractive, a good storyteller, well liked and that when he died everyone from

far and wide would go to his funeral. He got this idea from the story of Dave

Singleton, who represented, to Willy, the epitome of success as a salesman.

Willy is having mental problems, delusions of his long-dead brother Ben, whom he

has many advice-searching conversations with. Ben represented success to Willy

by Ben’s dignity, status and wealth, not his attributes, "There was a man

started with the clothes on his back and ended up with diamond mines"(Act

1, Scene 4). The lies he keeps telling other people and the dreams he has for

success actually begin to convince Willy that he was a great salesman who was

known everywhere he went, "…’cause one thing, boys: I have friends. I can

park my car in any street in New England and the cops protect it like their

own"(Act 1, Scene 3). His deteriorating condition is exposed many times,

but is most prominent when he is talking with both Charlie and Ben at the same

time. Another example of the conflict inside of Willy is his repeated references

to suicide. In Charley’s office, Willy says, "Funny, y’know? After all the

highways, and the trains, and the appointments, and the years, you end up worth

more dead than alive"(Act 2, Scene 6). Willy has already been contemplating

suicide, but this is the first, straight-out mention of it. He takes suicide to

be an honorable thing, something that would help his family greatly. His mental

condition makes him forget the fact that suicide is a cowardly option for

getting out of his responsibilities. The climax of the story is after Happy and

Biff return home from the dinner with Willy and the whole family has a big

argument. Biff tells Willy that he is sorry for hurting him and says, ?If I

strike oil I?ll send you a check. Meantime, forget I?m alive? (Act 2,

Scene 14). The father-son conflict between them ends in this conversation. It is

the most emotional part of the play and where Willy is relieved of some guilt.

The denouement of the play is when Willy realizes that Biff loves him and has

always loved him. Willy also believes that Biff could one day be a very wealthy

man, if only he had some money to start with. Willy believes that the twenty

thousand dollars that his life insurance policy is worth is enough. With these

thoughts, and his mental problems affecting his thinking, he takes his car and

commits suicide. The conclusion to Death of a Salesman takes place at Willy?s

funeral where only his closest friends show up. This only proves even more so

that Willy?s dreams were unrealistic. Biff offers Happy a chance to break away

from their father?s far-fetched dreams, but Happy does not take the offer.

Charley tries to comfort Linda, but she wants to be alone with Willy. They all

leave and Linda tells Willy?s grave that the mortgage on their house is

finally paid off and that she is hurting that he won?t be there to share it

with him. The right term for the language in Death of a Salesman is probably

describing it as ?Modern American?. The speech is in the relaxed talking

language of modern America, ?Gee, I?d love to go with you sometime, dad?

(Act 1, Scene 3). The Lomans live in Brooklyn, but the famous ?Noo Yawka?

accent is barely heard. The characters use the common speaking slang of

conversation. But, when Happy tries to impress the two prostitutes at the

restaurant, he speaks in a more formal tone, ?Why don?t you bring-excuse me

miss, do you mind? I sell champagne, and I?d like you to try my brand. Bring

her a champagne, Stanley? (Act 2, Scene 7). Most of the action takes place

inside of Willy?s disturbed mind, as he relives crucial scenes from the past

even while groping through present-day encounters. The rest of the action takes

place in the kitchen and two bedrooms of Willy?s modest Brooklyn home. It was

once in a suburban area but is now crowded in by high apartment buildings,

?The way they boxed us in here. Bricks and windows, windows and bricks? (Act

1, Scene 1). The kitchen has a table in it with three chairs and a refrigerator.

No other fixtures are in the kitchen. There is a living room in the house, which

is not fully furnished. The boys? bedroom has a bed with a brass bedstead and

a straight chair. On a shelf over the bed is a silver athletic trophy. This

setting shows the monetary restrictions on the Loman family. Howard?s office

is filled with expensive things that make him feel ?rich?. This setting is

another way for Miller to show the spite he feels towards people who put too

much emphasis on material gain. One of the things in his office is a recording

machine which Howard is obsessed with, ?This is the most fascinating

relaxation I ever found? (Act 2, Scene 2). Frank?s Chop House is a small,

family run business with a small dining room. This setting is important because

it serves as the location where Biff and Happy desert their father. The Boston

hotel room has a bed, bathroom, and a small dresser. This setting serves as the

place where Biff loses all his faith in his father, ?You fake! You phony

little fake! You fake!? (2, 13) Willy is a broken exhausted man in his 60?s,

soon to end his life. He exaggerates and lies throughout his life to appear more

well off. This stems from his feelings of failure. He worked steadily for

thirty-six years at a job and has paid off a long-term mortgage. Even though he

has supported his family, his own huge aspirations make him feel like he has

been a failure. He also has bad moral values and continuously gives his children

the wrong advice. Willy had, at one point in his life, been a very confident

man, but is now weak of both mind and body, as Linda expresses here, ?But

you?re sixty years old. They can?t expect you to keep traveling every

week.? (1, 1). He wants Biff to love him but knows why Biff is so angry with

him. He wants Biff to have a good life so decides to kill himself and get the

insurance policy for Biff and Happy. Once he sees that Biff loves him, he says

?Biff, he likes me? (2, 14), with a great look of joy on his face. Biff

probably changes for the best as the play progresses. From a lying, stealing

person in the beginning he changes in the end to where he is reaching for a more

realistic idea of what his life is all about. Biff cared for his father and was

deeply hurt to see that his father, the man he admired most, was capable of

infidelity and lying to his wife. He tended to go to extremes, though. His

passionate insistence, toward the end, that he is ?nothing,? or that he and

his father are both ?a dime a dozen,? still sounds a little like the

uncompromising disclaimer of the younger Biff who had sobbingly burned his

sneakers. Now he sees his father?s dreams as ?All, all wrong.? Yet

although he still talks a little like the sports hero, he is now groping toward

a more realistic, more mature self-appraisal. He realizes that neither Willy nor

Happy will ever even get that far. Happy, at first, seems to understand life

better than either Biff or Willy, but then it is shown that he is a very

accomplished liar. He has all but convinced himself that he is slated to become

his store?s next merchandise manager. He cannot quiet his own scruples, he

knows he is wrong when he takes bribes, and he has some sense of guilt regarding

the seduction of other men?s fianc?es, but does not stop either practice. He

refuses to face unpleasant truths and is always trying to impress people.

Whatever occasional admissions he makes, he will not give up his dream world or

his shabby sexual affairs. He may talk of changing his ways or getting married,

but he never sounds convincing. He is finally seen rejecting Biff?s invitation

to start anew and prefers to justify Willy?s illusive dream of coming out

?number-one man? (Requiem). Unlike Biff, Happy learns relatively little from

witnessing his father?s collapse. Linda is primarily a wife rather than mother

in this play. If she is seen as motherly, her ministrations are for Willy rather

than her sons. She is forever soothing, flattering and tactfully suggesting

courses of action to Willy. She is almost always patient and kind to him,

ignoring his minor outbursts and considerately accepting with grace such obvious

deceptions as the burrowing of money from Charley. Linda loves Willy and regards

his suffering with compassion. But she humors him as a child rather than meeting

him squarely as an adult. Yet the same mild-mannered, gentle Linda can be

surprisingly blunt and harsh, though, when she talks with her sons. She once

tells Happy to his face that he is a ?philandering bum? (Act 1, Scene 9).

After the restaurant disaster, she denounces both her sons fiercely, flings away

their flowers and imperiously orders them out of the house. Her one thought is

Willy. If their presence cheers him or helps him in some way, she is glad to

have them around, but if what they do further upsets her already disturbed

grown-up ?child,? then the sons must go and not return. Bernard and Charley

contrast strikingly to the Lomans. Unlike Willy, Charley lays no claim to

greatness, but is content. He goes along calmly and quietly, undistinguished but

relatively content. His salvation, he once declared, is that he never took any

interest in anything. That, of course, is not literally true for he shows

unusually generous consideration to Willy and wants to help him, ?I am

offering you a job? (Act 2, Scene 6). He set himself a modest goal and is

satisfied with modest achievements. Bernard is no match athletically to the

Lomans, but gets good grades and is forging ahead brilliantly. When he is last

seen, he is heading to Washington, DC to plead a case in front of the Supreme

Court. Willy stands in wonder as Bernard leaves and asks Charley why Bernard was

not bragging, Charley replies, ?He don?t have to- he?s gonna do it? (Act

2, Scene 5). Charley, on his part, takes issue with Willy on such vital matters

as the importance of being well liked. Yet it is he who in the end defends Willy

to Biff in almost melodic terms. Willy sneered at Charley, insulted him, and

then borrowed sizable sums from him, but Charley can say with vehemence,

?Nobody dast blame this man? (Requiem). This father-son combination is an

exact opposite of Happy and Willy, they understand right and wrong. The

symbolism in Death of a Salesman is a major aspect of the story. One of the

symbols, specifically, Biff?s sports shoes with the University of Virginia

printed on the sole, represent his confident dream of a bright future through an

athletic scholarship. When his dreams are shattered, he destroys the shoes in a

fit of angry bitterness. The stockings mentioned throughout the play stand for

infidelity. They represent Willy?s attempt to look impressive outside the home

by giving a box of brand new ones to the woman he has an affair with. Linda

darns her own stockings and that makes Willy feel like a bad provider for his

family along with reminding him of his affair. Ben?s African cache of

diamonds, to Willy, stands for his insurance policy. It is the great pile of

gold waiting for him if he takes the opportunity. Ben is always seen looking at

his watch and this symbolizes the time that Willy has to take the opportunity.

Finally, Ben says, ?Time, William, time!? (Act 2, Scene 14). With that, Ben

is telling Willy to go through with his decision. The opportunity that they keep

mentioning is Willy committing suicide. Another symbol, Dave Singleman, the

famous salesman, stands for success. He was everything that Willy ever dreamed

of being. Willy wanted his funeral to be like Singleman?s, with hundreds of

people showing up and telling each other how great Willy was. One literary

technique that Miller used well in Death of a Salesman is foreshadowing. One

time, Willy says to Charley in his office, ?Funny, y?know? After all the

highways, and the trains, and the appointments, and the years, you end up worth

more dead than alive? (Act 2, Scene 6). Charley realizes what Willy is

implying and replies to him, ?Willy, nobody?s worth anything dead? (Act 2,

Scene 6). This shows how Willy has already made up his mind to commit suicide.

Also Willy?s Chevrolet and the rubber tube serve as the means for him to do

that. These two things also are hints to the outcome of Willy?s life. Another

literary technique Miller used is called flashback. The flashbacks are used as

revelations of things mentioned in the present-day conversations. They serve as

a tool to help the reader understand the background to the story. Willy is often

caught reliving the Boston hotel room scene, and is also sometimes reminded of

the better times he had with his family when he was younger. A final literary

technique Miller used well is irony. The reader sees that the problem between

Willy and Biff is that Biff has lost all faith in his father. Linda often

wonders why Biff hates his father so much, and never knows what is really going

on. Biff: Because I know he?s a fake and he doesn?t like anybody around who

knows! Linda: Why a fake? In what way? What do you mean? Biff: Just don?t lay

it all at my feet. It?s between me and him-that?s all I have to say. (Act 1,

Scene 9) Linda has no idea of what is behind Biff?s dislike for his father,

and is sometimes confused by it. One theme Miller expresses in Death of a

Salesman is the corruption of modern business. Willy has worked for over 30

years for the Wagner Company, and, even though, to Howard, ?Business is

business? (Act 2, Scene 2), Willy?s plea of slightly more consideration as a

human being is wrenching and serves to underscore this theme. Even Charley says

that personal association does not count for much, but contradicts this when he

offers his broken friend a job. Another theme expressed is unethical practices

and questionable morality. Willy seems undisturbed by the news that Biff has not

been studying. He passes off some of Biff?s actions, such as his cheating on

exams and stealing the football, as being ?examples of initiative?. Willy

also tries to excuse his infidelity by saying ?She?s nothing to me, Biff. I

was lonely, I was terribly lonely.? (Act 2, Scene 13). Willy also says nothing

to Biff when he tells him that he stole a football from his school locker-room

and also Oliver?s personalized pen. Willy, Biff, and Happy all lie repeatedly

throughout the play, with only Biff feeling bad about what he had done. We see

that this family falls apart and that this theme should serve as a moral to

anyone who reads it. A final theme seen in Death of a Salesman is family

solidarity. Early on in its history, it is seen that the family is very happy

and that the two sons admire their hard-working father deeply, ?We were

lonesome for you pop? (Act 1, Scene 3). As the play progresses, it is shown

that the whole family is unhappy, and that the bond between them all is

unraveling as time passes. To resolve their problems, and if they wanted to help

each other, they would have tried to discuss their problems instead of keeping

them inside and arguing with each other. Willy?s mental problems affected

this, because he could only talk to his dead brother Ben about his family

problems. If the family had stuck together, they might have pulled through

Willy?s terrible problems. If the play All My Sons signaled the arrival of

Arthur Miller as a most promising playwright, Death of a Salesman raised him to

the rank of major American dramatist. He has been considered by many to be the

greatest of American playwrights. Some of Miller?s contemporaries, who are

themselves considered as being some of America?s leading writers, have

bestowed high praise upon him and his works. Gilbert W. Gabriel described Death

of a Salesman as a ?fine thing, finely done? (Corrigan, 95). Also, one of

the most noticeable writers of all time, Euphemia Wyatt, termed it as being the,

?great American tragedy? (Corrigan, 96). After reading this play a few

times, the reader is left in an awe-inspired state. It is mind-boggling to

actually see the pure essence of Miller?s meaning. He develops themes and

morals so well in his works, especially Death of a Salesman, that it is taken

for granted. The messages are easily seen, but never fully understood until the

reader first understands the story. Miller?s craftsmanship in this play is

indisputable of being on the level of a masterpiece. Every aspect of the play is

done magnificently well, and Miller blends these separate ideas together

brilliantly. The symbolism and irony, especially, are two of the greatest

aspects of the play. Miller?s unorthodox style adds even more to the greatness

of the play. The flashbacks he uses are, at first, a confusing part of the play,

but, when read over, only enhance the powerful messages told in it. The reader

understands easier the problems that Willy faces because of Miller?s style.

Without the flashbacks, the background to his mental problems would not have

been easily seen. The reader also sees the importance of the play in American

society. Death of a Salesman, among other of his works, is used as a messenger

of things Miller would like to see done away with in American society. He

criticizes material wealth, the lack of American family values, and the lack of

mutual responsibility between people. Miller, with just putting these themes

into a great story, can be considered a good writer. Everything else that he has

done in his works makes him a true master of plays.

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