Hindu Revival In America Essay, Research Paper

Hindu Revival In An Alien Land. America is coming alive with the sounds and

images of Hinduism. From Ras and Garbha dances during Navratri in Chicago and

Edison to Diwali fireworks in Manhattan’s South Street Seaport; from the sounds

of conches and the chanting of hymnals at temple ceremonies in Pittsburgh and

Flushing to the consecration of new dieties at the Balaji Temple in Bridgewater,

N.J., and the foundation-laying ceremony for a new Shree Raseshwari temple in

Austin, Texas; from the modest get-togethers of the devout before a makeshift

alter in a three-car garage in Glen Mills, Pa., to mini-culfests in Atlanta and

New York University, the American landscape this past month seems to have come

alive with the sounds and images of Hinduism. On Oct. 25, Jackson Height’s 74th

Street, which is contemplating a name change to ‘Little India’, was transformed

into a Lucknavi Diwali mela, complete with Indian sweet and chat stalls and a

shadow puppet performance. New York Mayor david Dinkins joined the celebration,

as did San Jose’s Mayor Susan Hammer a similar event in San Jose. In

Monroeville, Pa., the India Heritage Research Foundation is putting together an

Encyclopedia of Hinduism, while the International foundation for Vedic

Education, in Rahway, N.J., established this March to revive ‘Vedic Education in

its true spirit and form’, has announced plans for an international conference

on Atharva Vedas in July 1993. There can be no mistaking it. A Hindu revival is

taking shape in an alien land. Population Impetus For Growth The doubling of the

Indian American population in the 1980s is the impetus for this Hindu

resurgence. For the first time their numbers have reached the critical mass to

sustain Indian American religious institutions and temples in towns and cities

across the United States. Since 1965, when discriminatory national origin quotas

were lifted and the gates opened to Asian immigrants, the Indian population has

grown twenty-fold and is presently nudging a million. The population growth has

coalesced with a recognition among many first generation Indian Americans, who

have long harbored illusions of returning to India in their waning years, that

the United States has become their permanent home and that they therefore need

institutions to transmit their cultural and religious traditions to their

children. In the first two decades, says Raymond Williams, distinguished

professor of philosophy and religion at Wabash College, in Crawfordsville, Ind.,

and author of several landmark books on Hinduism in the United States, religion

was not important to Indian immigrants, most of whom were urban and educated.

But increasingly many of them are turning devout Hindus, much more so than they

were back in India. Religion for them, Williams says, has become a conscious,

deliberative process. The religious revival among Hindus is not unusual to

America, which has experienced similar efforts to transplant religious

traditions among other new immigrant communities in the past. Says John Felton,

associate professor of religion at Emory University and author of Transplanting

Religious Traditions: Asian Indians in America, ‘When you get a large population

of immigrants they begin to duplicate institutions back home.’ Ramakrishna

Chalikonda, of the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society, which this February

established the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Bridgewater, N.J., says, ‘We want to

preserve some of our culture. The more we are away, the more we miss of it. We

want to get some of the same feeling as in India.’ Chalikonda’s sentiment is

echoed in a survey of Indians in Atlanta by Fenton, in which 94 per cent of the

respondents said preserving cultural values was important or very important to

them. The growth may have come at a faster pace for Indian Americans than it has

for other immigrants historically, because Indian Americans are the most

educated and affluent community in the United States. Theannual fund-raiser for

the Hindu Temple of Greater Chicago netted $128,000 in cash and pledges this

October. The temple has paid off nearly three-quarters of its $1.7 million debt

on the temple. After putting down $90,000 as a 10 per cent deposit at a

bankruptcy auction this February, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society raised

$800,000 in a whirlwind 42-day campaign to acquire a Bridgewater Church. The

Hindu Temple and Cultural Center in Berlin, which serves some 900 families in

South Jersey has an annual budget of $15,000 and its 100 founding members have

shelled out upwards of $1,000 for the temple. The Integration of Religion and

Culture Religion is a very integral part of Indian life and so even before they

could establish religious institutions in cities where they were numerically too

small to afford them, Indians congregated in homes for worship. Until they

purchased a rundown church in Berlin for just $50,000 in 1982, South Jersey’s

Indian families would congregate once a month at Osage School in Voorhees.

Similarly, until they outbid a Korean Church and the YMCA and plunked down

$850,000 for an unoccupied Trinity Church in Bridgewater, N.J., this February,

Indian Americans in the area had been meeting in local school buildings for

Telugu language classes. That tradition still continues in cities with small

Indian American populations. But even in areas where their numbers are few,

temples have begun to sprout. Augusta, Ga., home to only 500 Indians, who

earlier met in homes recently dedicated a new temple. Fenton writes in

Transplanting Religious Traditions, ‘While … Indians acculturate fairly easily

in public situations, at home and among other Indians they remain ambivalent

toward American culture and are strongly attached toward Indian life-styles,

Indian cultural tradition, and idealized valuations of India. They are

bicultural, moving back and forth between private and public, indigenous and

alien cultures. They adopt American material culture traits, but not typical

middle-class values. And their Indian identity is reinforced by frequent return

trips to India, by the tendency of the men to secure their brides from home, by

participation in secular and religious voluntary associations, and by the heavy

use of movies, music, news, and other cultural materials from India. Only 25

percent of them are U.S. citizens, often for purely practical reasons.’ The Face

of Hinduism The most visible symbol of the Hindu renaissance are the temples,

which have proliferated since 1977, when the Sri Venkateswara Temple, the first

by Indian immigrants was dedicated in Pittsburgh. In the years since, perhaps as

many as 50 new temples have been established, including a second one in

Pittsburgh, as well as temples in New York; Hawaii; Allentown, Penn.; San

Francisco, Calabasas, Berkley, Fremont, and Livermore, Calif.; Denver, Aurora

and Boulder, Colo.; Oakland Park and Miami, Fl.; Atlanta and Augusta, Ga.;

Chicago, Urbana and Aurora, Ill.; New Orleans, La.; Boston and Ashland, Mass.;

Adelphi, Bethesda, Silver spring and Lanham, Md.; Troy, flint and Lansing,

Mich.; Morris Plains, Garfield, Bridgewater and Berlin, N.J.; Toledo,

Cincinnati, Beavercreek and Columbus, Ohio; Nashville and Memphis, Tenn.; and

Houston, Peerland and San Antonio, Texas, among others. This Nov.6 the Balaji

Mandir in Bridgewater, N.J., consecrates marble idols from Tirupathi and Jaipur

at an elaborate three-day prathisthapana (consecration) ceremony. Early in

October, the Sri Siva-Vishnu Temple in Lanham, Md, began constructing a new

shrine to Sri Venkateswara. Today there are few concentrated population centers

of Indian Americans that either currently do not have Indian temples (some more

than one), or where plans for a temple are not currently in the works.

Pittsburgh Indians began worshiping in a renovated Baptist church in 1973. Four

years later, with assistance from the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Tirupathi,

Tamil Nadu, which provided skilled labor for construction, the Sri Venkateswara

Temple was dedicated. Three years later, North Indians dedicated a new temple in

Monroeville. The Pittsburgh Temple was followed by the Mahaganapati Temple in

Flushing, the Sri Meenakshi Temple in Houston, and the Balaji Temple in Smyrna,

Ga. In addition to the Mahaganapati Temple, New York also has a Hanuman Mandir,

a Geeta Temple, a Swaminarayan Temple, as well as several smaller temples and

religious institutions under the aegis of various gurus, such as the Chinmaya

Mission, Sathya Sai Baba, Bhram Kumaris, and the Hare Krishnas, to name just a

few. The city is also home to several gurdwaras and Indian Christian churches,

as well as a Jain Bhavna. The proliferation of temples is a measure of the

religious diversity of the Indian American community. Says Williams, ‘Once you

might have had a temple, or a mosque that everybody went to. But when a

community becomes large enough then various types of religious institutions

develop.’ Although many temples, such as the Geeta Temple in New York, the Hindu

Temple in Pittsburgh and the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center in Berlin, NJ, are

ecumenically based, sub-ethnic identities and religious diversity begin to be

asserted as the population grows. Several cities now have separate South Indian

and North Indian temples. Atlanta has a million dollar Sri Venkateswara Temple,

a Shakti Mandir and a Swaminarayan Temple. Plans are afoot for a Greater Atlanta

Vedic Temple to serve North Indians and Indians from Trinidad and Fiji. The

Swaminarayan sect that boasts upwards of 20,000 followers in the United States

has established 30 centers all over the country, including several large

campuses with temples. The 30,000 estimated Jains in the United States have

established temples in New York City, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, and New

Jersey. Fenton says the Pittsburgh Indian American community split early between

North Indians who wanted a modern temple with many dieties and South Indians who

wanted one primary diety. the result is that the city now has two temples and a

third is on the cards. Hindus in America are beginning to organize along

religious and regional lines, providing the full flavor of regional and local

variations of Hinduism. Some temples are seeking to bridge India’s religious

pluralism within a single organizational structure. When the India Temple

Association was established in 1975 in South Jersey, its constitution provided

for a council of trustees drawn equally from each of four geographic regions of

India so that all religious traditions could be represented. In 1982, the

constitution was revised to take account of the shifting profile of Indian

Americans. The new 24 member board of trustees has three from each of four zones

in India and 12 at-large. The Sanctity of Tradition Many U.S. temples have been

built in close collaboration with major Indian temples. The famous Sri

Venkateswara Temple in Tirupathi, Tamil Nadu, has assisted in the elaborate

Balaji temples in Pittsburgh, Flushing, Atlanta and Houston, among others.

Nonetheless, purists argue that since Hinduism is rooted in a way of life, it

cannot be transplanted from its cultural base in India, even though it is

undergoing shifts of its own in that country. And the fact that Hinduism does

not have a single sacred text like the Bible or the Koran, nor an organizational

form, such as the Catholic church, makes transplanting of its rituals and

traditions doubly difficult. Adapting to the American context has required

compromises and is reshaping the face of Hinduism. For instance, temples

accommodate toilets in public areas to meet building codes requirements. In

India, religion is for the most part an individual activity and in that

tradition, most Hindus in the United States practice their religion at home,

often before small religious shrines. Many more perhaps invoke the even more

convenient Hindu philosophical concept of karma yogi, in which they meet their

moral and religious obligations through their vocations. In the public arena,

perhaps the most dramatic adjustment that Hindus have made is by accepting an

institutional structure, which the religion lacks in India. The practice of

Hinduism in the United States is through group association and even people who

would have been relatively indifferent to religious institutions in India are

getting involved, often contributing generously. Fenton’s survey of the

religious traditions of Indians in Atlanta found that almost onein two Indians

participates in group worship at least once a month. Felton believes that many

immigrants are more religious than they would have been in India because they

believe the whole burden and responsibility of perpetuating their religion and

culture has shifted on them. Says Felton, ‘They realize that if they do not do

it, it won’t be done.’ Unlike temples in India, Hindu temples in the United

States maintain membership lists and frequently rely upon members for their

growth and maintenance. They also serve non-ritual purposes, indeed frequently

are nodes of cultural activity, organizing Navratri celebrations with Ras and

Garbha dances, bhajans, Bhangra, Diwali celebrations, sometimes to raise money

for temple operations. Fenton’s Atlanta survey found that only 16 percent of the

Indians there felt that religion was the most important Indian cultural trait

they wanted to preserve, well behind, family, and the Indian character.

Consequently, many temples, such as the ones in Berlin and Allentown coordinate

baluihar programs for children, yoga abhyasa for adults, as well as youth

programs. The Mahaganpathi Temple in flushing is building a mandap for wedding

ceremonies. The Berlin temple has recently acquired a mandap for the nearly two

dozen marriage ceremonies that are performed annually at the temple. This

function of temples is driven by an assumption that Indian culture and religion

are inseparable. Says Mahesh Dixit, priest at the Hindu Temple in Berlin, N.J.,

‘Hinduism is a way of life; you cannot make it separate from living. Religion

and culture are intermingled.’ Temples, Chalikonda says, are not simply a

religious phenomenon, but they also serve as cultural nodes. He says that people

are more willing to contribute to the development of a temple, but the

Bridgewater temple also plays a very crucial cultural role. The nexus between

the religious and cultural strands was plainly evident in 1983 at a general body

meeting of Atlanta’s Indian American cultural Association as it examined the

objectives of an Indian cultural center. The members rejected a view that the

center should be secular and limited to cultural activities and agreed to name

it the India Cultural and Religious Center. Similarly, the India Temple

Association in South Jersey named its center as the Hindu Temple and Cultural

Center. Authenticity of Rituals Notwithstanding a strong urge to preserve

authentic forms of worship, Hindu temples are discovering the need to modify

rituals because of local circumstances. Fenton points out that Hindu temples in

the United States are open to the public, including those unfamiliar with purity

requirements, and that food is often not cooked by Brahmins. The Atlanta temple

even allows the serving of meat and alcohol in nontemple areas of the center.

Most temples also have to maintain restricted worship hours, often limited to

just weekends. The Berlin, N.J., temple attracts fewer than a dozen people on

weekdays, upto a hundred on weekends and between 600 to 800 during major events,

such as Diwali. Dixit says his congregation has animatedly debated the approach

of bhakti marg, the path of devotion, which argues that humans are liberated by

god because of their devotion whether or not they understand the rituals, and

gyan marg, advocated by those who seek real knowledge. The debate centers on

preserving the authenticity of traditional rituals. At the Berlin temple, many

volunteers perform puja, including some who are not Brahmins. While

conservatives may argue that only Brahmins can perform rituals, Dixit says, a

‘Brahmin is not someone who is born into a Brahmin family’, but rather one who

has the traits and the purity of a Brahmin. Says Dixit, ‘It can be a Patel, a

Gandhi, a Bhatnagar, a Dave, a Amin, a Vardhana, from all sectors of India,’ all

of whom perform services at the Berlin temple. The temple also decided to retain

the stained glass windows it inherited from a run-down church it had picked up

for $50,000 in 1982, even repairing some that were in need of work at

considerable cost, because, Dixit says, ‘good art from western civilization’ is

to be valued. The sanctity of traditional rituals and the rigidity with which

they are followed is nonetheless a contentious and sometimes a departure point

for many congregations. At the Geeta Temple in Corona, bhajans are performed in

Hindi, whereas at the Flushing temple, which attracts mostly South Indians, the

pujas and rituals are conducted in sanskrit by pujaris. The same is true for the

Sri Venkateswara temple in Pittsburgh. The newly-opened Bridgewater temple,

which will only be dedicating the first idols in November, nonetheless brought

in two priests from India (training facilities for priests being unavailable in

the United States) to ensure the sanctity of rituals. While resources and

circumstances impose limits on ritualistic forms at most temples (such as

whether a full-time priest is affordable), the congregations and the priests

also bring different levels of sensitivities: some stress the sanctity of

tradition, while others truncate it or add explanations. Hindu tradition demands

worship three times daily, but that is not possible at the Berlin temple, which

has settled instead for a single worship ceremony. The temple, currently staffed

by part-time volunteer priests has not had the resources to afford a full-time

pujari, although it is now planning to acquire one from India. Like many other

roving, freelance priests, the current volunteer priest at the Berlin temple,

Dixit was drafted to the role some 25 years ago. A civil engineer by profession

he discovered himself at a friend’s wedding in 1965 at which the pujari did not

show up. since he was a Brahmin and had attended a sanskrit patshala the family

turned to him to perform the wedding. As Dixit did not know any of the rituals,

he squirreled himself inside a room with a how to book and emerged four hours

later to perform his first 45 minute ceremony. Since them, Dixit has discovered

himself officiating at similar ceremonies, particularly in the early years when

priests were hard to find. He does not consider himself a professional priest,

still performing his priestly duties on a voluntary basis. ‘It’s my karma, my

obligation,’ he says. When Dixit performs a marriage ceremony he adorns a

traditional kurta pyjama. But once the ceremony is over he appears at the

reception in a suit. ‘I am in a different role,’ he explains. ‘I am no longer a

priest. That is all part of Hindu philosophy. We play different roles.’

‘Hinduism has those conveniences built into it,’ Dixit says. ‘That is its

essence. Hinduism gives us the freedom of thought and expression.’ It is going

to need that room, because it is bound to undergo even deeper revisions at the

hands of the second generation. The ingredients of the new Hinduism that will

emerge, Fenton says, will be that it will be ‘more general, less sectarian, less

regional, and less temple oriented.’ Temples may still thrive among new

immigrants, but Felton sees an emerging ’split between second and third

generations and the first generation.’ Hinduism in America is not all

constricting, however. New temples require elaborate Pran Pratishtha ceremonies

to consecrate the dieties. These ceremonies are very rare, which few people in

India have witnessed as most temples have been around for a very long time.

Dixit says visitors from India who have attended one of the three such

ceremonies held at the Berlin temple have expressed wonderment at the

opportunity to witness an event that is such a rarity in India. By contrast, the

upcoming Now. 6 consecration of dieties at the Bridgewater, N.J., Balaji Mandir

is one of nearly 100 such consecrations to take place in the United States in

the past decade. Nor is the change in Hinduism uni-directional. Williams says

that the silpis from Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, who came to the United States to

build temples in Chicago and Pittsburgh returned to India and are applying their

new architectural techniques back in India. ‘With rapid communication and travel

this change in India is bound to intensify,’ he says, adding that a new ‘global

Hinduism’ could be the outcome of this interchange. The Second Generation The

urgency many first generation Indian Americans feels for developing their

religious institutions is driven by the concerns for the second generation.

Because their children are being socialized almost exclusively in the American

tradition, many Indian American parents feel the need for Indian institutions

that can help them mould the Indian cultural identity in their children. Dixit

says, ‘The temple is needed more for our children than for you and me. All of us

have a small alter for us at home and god is everywhere.’ But there is a need

for acculturating second generation Indians in the Hindu tradition, he says. ‘We

are losing the battle because the children are indoctrinated in Western culture

300 days. But in the 26 meetings a year of balvihar, we give people some

choice.’ The efforts, he says have ’some degree of success.’ Like many other

temples, the Berlin temple organizes regular programs for youth: a bimonthly

balvihar for ‘physical, mental and spiritual de velopment’ of youngsters, yoga

abhyasa for adults and youth programs to promote knowledge and understanding of

Hindu dharma. Other temples organize camps, language courses and training in

Indian dance for youth. But, Felton says, the second generation has little

enthusiasm about the temples. Indian American students in his religion classes

at Emory University don’t comprehend the puja. ‘The rituals are in sanskrit and

even many of the parents do not understand them so that they cannot explain them

to the children. The children know when it is time to eat. They recognize aarti.’

Given the weak religious educational system and the enormous pressures of

socialization and Americanization among children, Felton says, ‘there does not

seem much chance’ for Hindu traditions to prevail. ‘It is a paradox and it is

ironical because the first generation is setting up these institutions for the

children. But the effect they want them to have will not happen.’ However, Dixit

says the religious educational programming is effective with children who go

through it. He says it is easy for him to pick out children who have

participated in a balvihar program. Having graduated from performing marriage

ceremonies to officiating at funeral ceremonies as the Community ages, Dixit

says, he discovers that the family structure is much stronger among children

exposed to Hindu traditions through balvihar. Hindu camps for youth, mostly

organized by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad and occasionally by regional temples and

religious organizations, are another effort to transmit religious traditions to

the new generation (See accompanying story). At the camps, children are exposed

to yoga, meditation, aarti, dandia, Hindu philosophy, dating, etc. Says Bharat

Gajjar, who directed the Vivekanand Camp this summer in Medford, N.J., ‘On the

first day of the camp, a boy from North Carolina came to me and said, "My

parents are Hindu but I am not sure I want to remain Hindu or become Christian.

I’m here on this camp to find out what Hinduism is all about." … On the

last day to my surprise he asked for a mala (which I give to any child who asks

for one) and asked me to show him how to chant "Om Namah Sivaya."’

Felton’s survey of Atlanta youth found that more than half consider themselves

religious and almost two-thirds say they perform some form of individual worship

at least once a week. Nonetheless, Felton says, more liberalized forms of

worship is inevitable. ‘As they grow older they will produce an American form of

Hinduism that does not exist any where else.’ Hinduism in American Society

America is noticeably more tolerant of Indian Americans and their religion than

it was eight decades ago when the arrival of a few thousand sikhs sparked

alarming reports of a ‘turbaned tide’ and the ‘invasion of the heathens’ (See

box). Indians have kept a fairly low profile and so public awareness of them and

their religion, is still minimal, although their domination of the motel

industry is beginning to be noticed. Given the difficult economic times, Felton

says, it is possible that Americans may react with hostility to foreigners, as

they have demonstrated toward the Japanese. Currently, only the Methodist Church

has attempted to convert Hindus, Felton says. The Indian Christian churches

arenot very active and mainstream American churches haven’t undertaken the kind

of aggressive proselytizing efforts that they have with Koreans, for instance.

Felton says that some awareness of Hindus has grown locally and there have been

isolated incidents of vandalism of temples. More subtle form of racisms may be

behind the zoning conflicts that many Hindu temples have run into, he says. This

July the Norwalk, Calif., City Council voted to deny permission for building a

$1.2 million Swaminarayan temple adjacent to two Christian churches in the

95,000 person township following resident protests. Mayor Robert J. Arthur

expressed concerns of heavy traffic because the temple would service the Indian

community in Southern California. Several Indian Americans denounced the

council’s actions as racist and the Long Beach Press Telegram weighed in with an

editorial blasting the ruling as ‘narrow beyond belief’ and suggesting that the

council’s actions would have been different had the request come from a Catholic

church. At a packed public hearing many residents sported badges reading

‘Preserve Our Neighborhood.’ Fenton says it is difficult to determine whether

there is a veiled prejudice against foreign religions in these zoning

controversies, because the problem is coupled with choices of locations that are

often not the best for parking and access. ‘It’s hard to prove, although one

suspects there is some racism at work,’ he says. Not surprisingly, some Indian

temples are getting around zoning difficulties by buying up vacant churches.

Atlanta Indians purchased a Pentecostal church in Smyrna for $250,000 and

transformed it into a temple. similarly, the Berlin temple bought a church that

was up for sale. And most recently, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society in

Bridgewater picked up an unoccupied church building from a bankruptcy court.

Chalikonda says that the fact that the building already had the necessary

permits and zoning clearance was a consideration in their choice. Nonetheless

the temple organizations have been careful about possible local resentment at

the conversion of churches into temples. The Atlanta temple did not face such a

problem because the congregation had moved to a bigger building elsewhere. The

Trinity Church in Bridgewater had never been occupied, having ended up in

bankruptcy court following a fight within the congregation. But the congregation

was from out of town and the church is not in a residential area, minimizing

possible backlash. Felton, who says, he finds Hinduism very stimulating, hopes

that Hinduism will not only be tolerated, but that it will make positive

contributions to the religious atmosphere. ‘The new pluralism is, I believe,

enriching. It brings possibilities for fruitful exchange among people of

different religious commitments and opportunities for genuine learning from each

other.’ As Hinduism chimes in with the new religious symphony that is playing

itself out in America, williams says, it is difficult to assess the impact of

the new religious pluralism on society. ‘There will have to be new basis for our

civic life and relationship between the various communities, but that will have

to come through negotiation between the various groups. We don’t know what the

shape of it will be.’