Persian Wars Essay, Research Paper

The Persian Wars In the 5th century BC the vast Persian Empire attempted to

conquer Greece. If the Persians had succeeded, they would have set up local

tyrants, called satraps, to rule Greece and would have crushed the first

stirrings of democracy in Europe. The survival of Greek culture and political

ideals depended on the ability of the small, disunited Greek city-states to band

together and defend themselves against Persia’s overwhelming strength. The

struggle, known in Western history as the Persian Wars, or Greco-Persian Wars,

lasted 20 years–from 499 to 479 BC. Persia already numbered among its conquests

the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor, where Greek civilization first

flourished. The Persian Wars began when some of these cities revolted against

Darius I, Persia’s king, in 499 BC. Athens sent 20 ships to aid the Ionians.

Before the Persians crushed the revolt, the Greeks burned Sardis, capital of

Lydia. Angered, Darius determined to conquer Athens and extend his empire

westward beyond the Aegean Sea. In 492 BC Darius gathered together a great

military force and sent 600 ships across the Hellespont. A sudden storm wrecked

half his fleet when it was rounding rocky Mount Athos on the Macedonian coast.

Two years later Darius dispatched a new battle fleet of 600 triremes. This time

his powerful galleys crossed the Aegean Sea without mishap and arrived safely

off Attica, the part of Greece that surrounds the city of Athens. The Persians

landed on the plain of Marathon, about 25 miles (40 kilometers) from Athens.

When the Athenians learned of their arrival, they sent a swift runner,

Pheidippides, to ask Sparta for aid, but the Spartans, who were conducting a

religious festival, could not march until the moon was full. Meanwhile the small

Athenian army encamped in the foothills on the edge of the Marathon Plain. The

Athenian general Miltiades ordered his small force to advance. He had arranged

his men so as to have the greatest strength in the wings. As he expected, his

center was driven back. The two wings then united behind the enemy. Thus hemmed

in, the Persians’ bows and arrows were of little use. The stout Greek spears

spread death and terror. The invaders rushed in panic to their ships. The Greek

historian Herodotus says the Persians lost 6,400 men against only 192 on the

Greek side. Thus ended the battle of Marathon (490 BC), one of the decisive

battles of the world. Darius planned another expedition, but he died before

preparations were completed. This gave the Greeks a ten-year period to prepare

for the next battles. Athens built up its naval supremacy in the Aegean under

the guidance of Themistocles. In 480 BC the Persians returned, led by King

Xerxes, the son of Darius. To avoid another shipwreck off Mount Athos, Xerxes

had a canal dug behind the promontory. Across the Hellespont he had the

Phoenicians and Egyptians place two bridges of ships, held together by cables of

flax and papyrus. A storm destroyed the bridges, but Xerxes ordered the workers

to replace them. For seven days and nights his soldiers marched across the

bridges. On the way to Athens, Xerxes found a small force of Greek soldiers

holding the narrow pass of Thermopylae, which guarded the way to central Greece.

Leonidas, king of Sparta, led the force. Xerxes sent a message ordering the

Greeks to deliver their arms. "Come and take them," replied Leonidas.

For two days the Greeks’ long spears held the pass. Then a Greek traitor told

Xerxes of a roundabout path over the mountains. When Leonidas saw the enemy

approaching from the rear, he dismissed his men except the 300 Spartans, who

were bound, like himself, to conquer or die. Leonidas was one of the first to

fall. Around their leader’s body the gallant Spartans fought first with their

swords, then with their hands, until they were slain to the last man. The

Persians moved on to Attica and found it deserted. They set fire to Athens with

flaming arrows. Xerxes’ fleet held the Athenian ships bottled up between the

coast of Attica and the island of Salamis. His ships outnumbered the Greek ships

three to one. The Persians had expected an easy victory, but one after another

their ships were sunk or crippled. Crowded into the narrow strait, the heavy

Persian vessels moved with difficulty. The lighter Greek ships rowed out from a

circular formation and rammed their prows into the clumsy enemy vessels. Two

hundred Persian ships were sunk, others were captured, and the rest fled. Xerxes

and his forces hastened back to Persia. Soon after, the rest of the Persian army

was scattered at Plataea (479 BC). In the same year Xerxes’ fleet was defeated

at Mycale. The threat of Persian domination was ended.